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Jack Herer is a sativa-dominant hybrid strain of cannabis that is well known for both its cerebral high and its strong body high. The strain is a cross between Skunk #1, Haze, and Northern Lights #5.[1]
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History
Jack Herer is named after the late hemp proponent, cannabis decriminalization activist, and author of The Emperor Wears No Clothes.[2] This strain is the most awarded variety in the history of harvest festivals, winning 11 High Times Cannabis Cup awards in seven years.[2][1]
Medical Uses
Jack Herer is effective in relieving anxiety, nervousness, stress and depression. It is also viewed as a motivational medicine, stimulating energy, creativity and concentration. [2]
Characteristics
Jack Herer produces earthy flavors and scents of spice and skunk combined with a signature haze accent. The dense, clustered buds often appear light green due to a frosty resin coating.[3]
The strain contains between 15-20% of the active ingredient THC,[1] and as of late 2011 it sells for between 10 and 16 dollars a gram at medical dispensaries near Seattle, WA.[2]
References
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Rights holder/Author | Wikipedia |
Source | http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jack_Herer_(cannabis)&oldid=468251389 |
Kush refers to a subset of strains of Cannabis indica. The origins of Kush cannabis are from landrace plants mainly in Afghanistan, Northern Pakistan and North-Western India [1] with the name coming from the Hindu Kush mountain range. "Hindu Kush" strains of cannabis were brought to the United States in the mid-to-late 1970s and continue to be available there to the present day.[2]
Kush strains were among those cultivated by the British firm GW Pharmaceuticals for its legally licensed commercial trial of medicinal cannabis.[3]
Legal Issues
US Congressman Mark Kirk, a Republican and current member of the Senate from Illinois, introduced legislation to increase the penalties for selling kush.[4] The High-Potency Marijuana Sentencing Enhancement Act of 2009 (H.R. 2848)[5] would increase the penalties for the possession with intent to distribute, manufacture, import or export to maximum fines of $1 million for an individual and $5 million for a group, with a maximum sentence of 25 years from the standard sentencing for marijuana which calls for a maximum fine of $250,000 for an individual, $1 million for a group and up to five years in prison.[6] Kirk believes that as kush may sell for up to $500 (USD) per ounce these increases are justified, saying that "if you can make as much money selling pot as cocaine, you should face the same penalties." [6].
References
- ^ Guy, Geoffrey William; Brian Anthony Whittle, Philip Robson (2004). The Medicinal Uses of Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmaceutical Press. p. 61. ISBN 0853695172. http://books.google.com/?id=AznCzOxvrtwC&pg=PA61&vq=Kush.
- ^ ElSohly, Mahmoud A. (2006). Marijuana And The Cannabinoids. Humana Press. p. 10. ISBN 1588294560. http://books.google.com/?id=fxoJPVNKYUgC&pg=PA10&dq=kush+cannabis.
- ^ Jackson, Trevor (November 10, 2001). "Cannabis the wonder drug?". British Medical Journal (British Medical Association) 323 (7321): 1136. doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7321.1136. PMC 1121619. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1121619. Retrieved 2008-03-14.
- ^ "Congressman Wants to Tackle "Super Pot"". WGIL News. http://www.wgil.com/localnews.php?xnewsaction=fullnews&newsarch=062009&newsid=189. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
- ^ "111th Congress 1st Session: H.R. 2848" (PDF). United States Government Printing Office. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-111hr2848IH/pdf/BILLS-111hr2848IH.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
- ^ a b "Kirk and Law Enforcement: Super-Marijuana "Kush" Hits Suburbs". June 15, 2009. http://www.house.gov/list/press/il10_kirk/kush.html. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
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Source | http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kush_(cannabis)&oldid=468817649 |
White Widow is a strain of cannabis produced by Australian cannabis breeder Scott "Shantibaba" Blakey[1][2] known for its abundance of white trichomes and high potency.[3] White Widow has been reported to leave the user with a relaxed feeling.[4] It, like most indica marijuana strains, is a good appetite enhancer. However, being a cross between sativa and indica it also has the sativa quality of mood enhancement - bringing on an interest in activities one may not normally enjoy. The strain won the Cannabis Cup in 1995.[5][6]
White Widow grown in Amsterdam is known to contain up to 20% of the active ingredient THC and sells for approximately $20-$25 a gram in Jacksonville, Florida. A 2005 article by Bloomberg revealed that White Widow was sold at the Compassion and Care Center in San Francisco for $453 per ounce. As late as 2011, it sells for approx. 8 euro per gram in The Netherlands. [7] In Seattle and Tacoma, it is available from dispensaries for Medical Marijuana patients for a donation of $12 US per gram. In Alpharetta, GA, a past winner of high times areas with the best buds, sells this bud for about 20 to 25 dollars a gram in the drug market.
References
- ^ "Mr. Nice History". http://www.mrnice.nl/dhtml/history.php.
- ^ "Black Widow". http://www.mrnice.nl/dhtml/strains.php?id=16.
- ^ Asthana, Anushka (January 18, 2004). "So just how potent are our street drugs?". The Guardian. Guardian Media Group. http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2004/jan/18/drugsandalcohol.drugs2. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
- ^ "White Widow Strain Effects". Leafly. http://www.leaf.ly/hybrid/white-widow.
- ^ Hager, Steven (February 9, 2009). "Cannabis Cup Winners". High Times. http://hightimes.com/cancup/hager/5064. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
- ^ Bennett, Oliver (August 11, 1996). "wot? no dope?". The Independent. Independent News & Media. http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/wot-no-dope-1309174.html. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
- ^ Gullo, Karen (June 7, 2005). "Marijuana Clubs in San Francisco Unfazed by High Court's Ruling". Bloomberg L.P.. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&sid=aVi6eu3oFtKE&refer=us. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
See also
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Northern Lights is a strain of cannabis. It is one of the first successful hybrids of Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa.[1]
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Development
Northern Lights is renowned for its ability to be grown very easily. The strain's reputation also comes from the fact that it has won competitions such as the Cannabis Cup. The #5 strain was first entered into competition 1989 when several seeds were mailed from the U.S.A. to Amsterdam. The strain quickly dominated the Cannabis Cup, winning in 1989, 1998, and again in 2009. It is a cross of Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa.
Impact
Northern Lights has received much attention in the scientific community, as it is often the subject of experiments testing the viability of medicinal marijuana.[2] The hybridization of cannabis is also notable in the botany community as Northern Lights in particular has been studied for its female and male genetic characteristics.[3][4] Users have reported feelings of euphoria and relaxation when under the influence of Northern Lights. [5]
Notes
- ^ "Marijuana". CESAR: Center for Substance Abuse Research. http://www.cesar.umd.edu/cesar/drugs/marijuana.asp. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
- ^ Press: Cannabis the wonder drug?
- ^ Microsoft Word - Lang_Carboni_pdf.doc
- ^ Blackwell Synergy - Botan J Linn Soc, Volume 147 Issue 4 Page 387-397, April 2005 (Article Abstract)
- ^ "Northern Lights Strain Effects". Leafly. http://www.leaf.ly/indica/northern-lights.
Sources
- Marijuana Horticulture: The Indoor/Outdoor Medical Grower's Bible
- Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society
- BioSource Hemp 2000
- Northern Lights Marijuana Seeds
- Encyclopedia of Clinical Toxicology
- The Medicinal Uses of Cannabis and Cannabinoids
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Source | http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_Lights_(cannabis)&oldid=466286046 |
Acapulco Gold is a sativa-dominant hybrid strain of cannabis, likely originating from the area around Acapulco, Mexico.[1]/ Acapulco Gold has strong sativa cerebral effects, offering a long lasting high that balances upbeat effects with body-relaxing, stress reducing calmness.[2]
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Medical Uses
Acapulco Gold has been found to effectively relieve symptoms of stress, anxiety, depression, insomnia, and chronic pain.[1]
Characteristics
The clusters of buds are pale green to yellow, speckled with reddish-brown gold and covered with very visible THC crystals. The strain produces flavors and scents of fruits and spices. It is known to contain up to 23% of the active ingredient THC.[3]
As of late 2011, Acapulco Gold sells for about 13 dollars per gram at medical dispensaries near Boulder, Colorado.[1]
History
The Oxford English Dictionary quotes an early usage of the term from a 1965 newsletter, in which it was described it as "a special grade of pot growing only in the vicinity of Acapulco. The color is either brownish gold or a mixture of gold and green. This grade has a potency surpassed by few of the green varieties and usually comes at slightly higher prices or in short weights."[4] According to one linguistics book, "The gold in this phrase originally described the golden hue of the leaves on the marijuana plant, but later came to refer both to the high quality of the marijuana and to the especially high price it commanded."[5]Acapulco by itself can be used as a synonym for marijuana, generally referring to a high-grade type like Acapulco gold.[4][5] The similarly named Acapulco red, refers to a reddish-brown marijuana grown near Acapulco, Mexico with reddish tops on the plants.[5]
References in Media
The Principia Discordia (1965) mentions that there is some debate as to whether the Golden Apple of Discord is made of metallic gold or Acapulco gold.
The New Riders of the Purple Sage song "Henry" from their eponymous first album references Acapulco Gold - the song is about the title character traveling to Acapulco to smuggle "twenty keys of Gold" back to the States .[6]
Although the Led Zeppelin song " Over The Hills And Far Away" does not mention Acapulco Gold in the studio version, singer Robert Plant frequently inserted the phrase into the song during live performances. After the lyric "I live for my dreams and a pocketful of gold" he would muse the phrase "Acapulco Gold" as if an afterthought or clarification. A soundboard bootleg of a 1973 live show entitled "Heritage Strain" features as artwork a pack of Acapulco Gold marijuana cigarettes.[7]
Led Zeppelin contemporary Roy Harper included a song titled "Acapulco Gold" on his 1974 Harvest release, Valentine. The song is sung in a Lounge music style, accompanied by piano and lyrics referring to "...getting rolled on my Acapulco Gold".
John Lennon and Peter Sellers are seen talking about Acapulco Gold during a promo shoot for the Beatles new company, Apple Corps.[8]
The Rush song "A Passage to Bangkok" mentions "Golden Acapulco Nights".
The Devin The Dude's song "Gotta Be Me" mentions "No stems, no seeds, that you don't need - Acapulco Gold is.. Mad Ass Weed".
Argentinean band Soda Stereo include the phrase “como oro de Acapulco” (like Acapulco Gold) on the song Planta from the 1995 album Sueño Stereo, the writer Gustavo Cerati makes reference to the drug being inside his body like blood to a plant
In his song "My Favourite Ladies", rapper MF Doom refers to the strain: "Fresh and ripe, perplexin' like Acapulco Gold, If I had to guess, just right, not a day old".
Cheech and Chong mention Acapulco Gold in their 1973 film "Up in Smoke". It is mentioned in the film several times. Seeds of Acapulco gold are even shown at one point.
Streetwear clothing company Acapulco Gold is named after the strain.
References
- ^ a b c http://www.leafly.com/hybrid/acapulco-gold
- ^ http://www.barneysfarm.com/index.php?p=home&i=75&action=detail〈=en
- ^ http://wikiweedia.co/view-all-strains/barneys-farm/acapulco-gold
- ^ a b "Acapulco." Oxford English Dictionary Online, Oxford University Press, via oed.com. (Subscription required). Retrieved on 2007-10-01.
- ^ a b c González, Félix Rodríguez. (1996.) "Spanish Loanwords in the English Language: A Tendency Towards Hegemony Reversal." Walter de Gruyter: Berlin, New York, ISBN 3110148455, p. 110. Retrieved on 2007-10-01.
- ^ "Lyrics +|+ NEW RIDERS of the PURPLE SAGE". Nrpsmusic.com. http://www.nrpsmusic.com/music/lyrics/henry.html. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
- ^ "Blog Archive » Led Zeppelin - Heritage Strain (Tarantura TCD-38-1,2)". Collectors Music Reviews. http://www.collectorsmusicreviews.com/led-zeppelin/led-zeppelin-heritage-strain-tarantura-tcd-38-12/. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
- ^ "rare beatles sessions#7". YouTube. 2008-11-17. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzG6Z47P4aw&feature=related. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
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BC Bud is a generic term for several varieties of potent cannabis grown in the Canadian province of British Columbia. The term has almost become a brand name, especially in California, Oregon, Alaska, Idaho and Washington, to where most of the province's cannabis is exported. The United States Drug Enforcement Administration considers BC production to be a major problem, given the porous United States-Canada border,[1] and has launched several major initiatives to cut down on its flow, including collaborative operations targeting marijuana activists such as Marc Emery.[2] It has even been discussed in the documentary, The Union: The Business Behind Getting High which chronicles the distribution, production and economics of marijuana.
A study released on October 4, 2006 by the University of Victoria Centre for Addictions Research of BC and Simon Fraser University Applied Research on Mental Health and Addictions indicated Cannabis use is more widespread among British Columbians than the rest of Canadians.[3]
However, a high tolerance for cannabis use in BC and an awareness of the role of it as an export cash crop (worth an estimated $6 billion annually[4]) has tended to make it difficult for Canadian or American authorities to intervene effectively. This remains a significant point of contention between the US and Canada, and is one of many US-Canada border problems driving changes to both nations' policies.[5]
Further, there is little, if any evidence that the police and the courts in British Columbia have charged persons for money laundering the multi-billion-dollar profits of BC Bud, and it is conceivable that the profiteers may now own a significant amount of British Columbia's legitimate property and businesses[6] and thus significantly influence politics at various levels in BC.[7]
The early history of cannabis production was centred in hippie communities in the Gulf Islands and Kootenay area, in climate conditions perfect for outdoor growing. It is believed that much of the cannabis currently sold for export originates from hydroponic grow-ops in the Lower Mainland, with significant amounts still added by outdoor growers throughout the province.[8]
BC has many compassion clubs, head shops and activists challenging the current legal and social views on cannabis. Larry Campbell, a Canadian senator and Vancouver's former Mayor, has called for the decriminalization,[9] and even legalization,[10] of cannabis in British Columbia.
From a commercial point of view, the fact that many growers in BC informally cooperate to keep quality high, while competing fiercely in an illegal business, is of interest to some in the agricultural economics community, as well as students of trademarks, agricultural policy, black markets, and agorism. British Columbia is increasingly known for the premium quality of its marijuana.[11]
See also
References
- ^ "BC Bud: Growth Of The Canadian Marijuana Trade" (PDF). DEA Intelligence Division. December 2000. http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/BC_Bud__Growth_Of_The_Canadian_Marijuana_Trade.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ "Plea deal means jail time for marijuana activist". Toronto Star. 2008-01-14. http://www.thestar.com/printArticle/293941. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ "Cannabis Use Highest in BC". University of Victoria. 2006-10-04. http://communications.uvic.ca/releases/release.php?display=release&id=758.
- ^ Canada Parliament, Senate; Colin Kenny, Pierre Claude Nolin (2003). Cannabis: Report of the Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs. Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 35. ISBN 0802086306. http://books.google.ie/books?id=L_5gu-eUfE8C.
- ^ "Senators Blast Canadian Border Security". ABC News. 2007-09-27. http://www.abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=3660302&page=1. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ "Organized Crime and Money Laundering in British Columbia". The Combined Forces Special Enforcement Unit-British Columbia. http://www.cfseu.bc.ca/cms/book/export/html/45.
- ^ "How our B.C. government and others profit from B.C. Bud". 2010-07-23. http://www.theworldtomorrow.ca/weeklycolumn/bc-government-profit-bc-bud/.
- ^ Canada Parliament, Senate; Colin Kenny, Pierre Claude Nolin (2003). Cannabis: Report of the Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs. Canada: University of Toronto Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 0802086306. http://books.google.ie/books?id=L_5gu-eUfE8C.
- ^ Campbell, Larry (2007-07-16). "Pot Users Do Not Fit the Criminal Profile". Larry Campbell's Weblog. http://larrycampbell.ca/blog/?p=27. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ "'Legalize it, control it and tax the livin' hell out of it'". The Province. 2007-11-11. http://www.canada.com/theprovince/news/story.html?id=cdf9aed6-718c-4991-8328-2475bfda76e6. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
- ^ Hamilton, Anita (2004-08-14). "'This Bud's For The U.S.'". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101040823-682290,00.html?promoid=rss_world. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
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Tom Cruise Purple is a strain of cannabis sold in California by select licensed cannabis clubs. The strain is potent, and is packaged with a picture of the actor Tom Cruise laughing. Cruise sought out legal advice regarding the product, and considered a lawsuit against its manufacturers.
Media commentators for The Toronto Star, Gawker, and the CNN program Showbiz Tonight analyzed the matter, and the product was the subject of a parody on a satirical website. American lawyer Lisa Bloom commented that it would not be prudent for Cruise to sue over the product, and public relations writer Howard Bragman stated it was not a good idea from a legal standpoint to utilize Cruise's image in such a fashion.
Contents |
Cannabis strain
The strain is very potent, and is reported to have hallucinogenic properties.[1][2] One patient said, "I heard it's the kind of pot that makes you hallucinate."[3] The marijuana is being sold in vials which have a picture of Tom Cruise laughing hysterically.[3][4] Tom Cruise Purple is sold by cannabis purveyors in Northern California.[5] The strain is sold legally in California, as a medical cannabis product.[1]
Legal response
Representatives for Cruise were notified of the existence of the product by journalists for the New York Daily News.[3] Cruise has sought legal advice about what action should be taken regarding the name.[3][6] He has considered filing a lawsuit against the manufacturers of the product.[7][8] As a follower of Scientology, Cruise is opposed to the use of psychotropic drugs.[3][9][10] He was reported to be furious over the existence of the product.[11][12][13] A friend of Cruise found the matter "outrageous".[14] Lawyers for Cruise commented to CNN, "We haven't seen the product, so we can't comment on whether or not it's true. Tom does not allow his name and likeness to be used to sell products. And as you can imagine, if he were to do an endorsement, this would hardly be his first choice."[15]
Commentary
Marlene Arpe wrote in The Toronto Star, "A strain of weed called Tom Cruise Purple is being sold at California cannabis clubs. It makes you laugh hysterically while maintaining iron-fisted control of everyone around you."[16] Ryan Tate of Gawker commented, "How high do you have to be to name a grade of medical marijuana after lawsuit-happy Scientologist Tom Cruise?"[17]CNN television host A.J. Hammer commented on the program Showbiz Tonight, "Also, you can now roll up Tom Cruise and smoke him. That's right. Marijuana is being sold called 'Tom Cruise Purple.' But you know, Tom's not laughing to be blunt. Will there be a joint investigation or is this just a token effort - you know, a half-baked idea?"[15]
American lawyer Lisa Bloom said of the possibility that Cruise's attorneys might sue over the marijuana product, "You know, if his lawyers sue over this, I'm going to wonder what they've been smoking. Nobody really thinks that Tom Cruise is endorsing this particular kind of marijuana. Why don't celebrities occasionally just laugh - just laugh at things? This is obviously supposed to be a joke. There's a picture of him laughing on it. He's clearly not making any money off of it. He's not endorsing it. I say, just let it go."[15]Miami editor of In Touch Weekly, Michael Cohen, stated "...it's well-known in the industry you don't mess with Tom Cruise. And so, that's all I can say. I'm sure his lawyers are on this like white on rice. But I'm sure he's actually not as affected by it as his lawyers are."[15]Public relations writer Howard Bragman commented, "I can tell you Tom and his lawyers do not have a sense of humor. And messing with Tom Cruise's image is risky business, OK?"[15]
See also
References
- ^ a b Guendelsberger, Emily (April 5, 2008). "Tom Cruise: will get you so high". Philadelphia Daily News (Philadelphia Media Holdings): p. 8.
- ^ "'Tom Cruise' Marijuana Problem". Radar (Radar Online, LLC). October 27, 2008. http://www.radaronline.com/exclusives/2008/04/tom-cruise-not-high-on-the-high-life.php. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
- ^ a b c d e "Medical high jinks leave Tom Cruise camp fuming". New York Daily News (Mortimer Zuckerman). April 4, 2008. http://www.nydailynews.com/gossip/2008/04/04/2008-04-04_medical_high_jinks_leave_tom_cruise_camp.html. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
- ^ "Report: 'Tom Cruise Purple' Medical Marijuana Has Actor Smoking Mad". Fox News Channel (Fox News Network, LLC). April 4, 2008. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,346371,00.html. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
- ^ Krugman, Milt (April 8, 2008). "Tom Cruise fuming". Bucks County Courier Times (Levittown, Pennsylvania).
- ^ Asian News International (April 5, 2008). "Tom Cruise to sue manufacturers of medical marijuana named after him". Hindustan Times (HT Media Ltd).
- ^ "Lanzan producto de marihuana con la imagen de Cruise" (in Spanish). Esmas.com (www.esmas.com). April 13, 2008. http://www.esmas.com/espectaculos/farandula/722920.html. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
- ^ "Tom Cruise 'goes to pot' over marijuana link". The New Zealand Herald (APN News & Media). April 7, 2008.
- ^ Countdown with Keith Olbermann. Contributor: Rachel Maddow. MSNBC. April 4, 2008.
- ^ "Asocian remedio a base de marihuana con imagen de Tom Cruise". Terra USA (Terra Networks). April 14, 2008. http://www.terra.com/ocio/articulo/html/oci290479.htm. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
- ^ Reardanz, Karen (April 4, 2008). "Cruise Fumes Over Marijuana Association". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/blogs/dailydish/detail?blogid=7&entry_id=25465. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
- ^ Saar, Mayrav (April 4, 2008). "TomKat in a Huff over Tom Pot". E! Online (E! Entertainment Television, Inc.). http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/b63073_TomKat_in_a_Huff_over_Tom_Pot.html. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
- ^ WENN (April 4, 2008). "Cruise fumes over marijuana association". World Entertainment News Network (Comtex).
- ^ "Purple haze for Cruise". MX (Sydney, Australia: Nationwide News Pty Limited). April 7, 2008.
- ^ a b c d e Hammer, A.J.; Brooke Anderson (April 4, 2008). "Pot Named After Tom Cruise". Showbiz Tonight (CNN). http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0804/04/sbt.01.html. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
- ^ "Pop goes the week". The Toronto Star (Toronto Star Newspapers Limited): p. E09. April 6, 2008.
- ^ Tate, Ryan (April 4, 2008). ""Tom Cruise Purple" The Kind Of Bud That "Makes You Hallucinate"". Gawker (Gawker Media). http://gawker.com/5005049/tom-cruise-purple-the-kind-of-bud-that-makes-you-hallucinate. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
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Sour Diesel is a strain of cannabis. It is a sativa dominate hybrids of 90% Cannabis sativa and 10% Cannabis indica.[1]
Contents |
Origin
Sour Diesel is a powerful and one of the most popular strains, resembling a sour citrus, or lemon combined with a strong scent similar to diesel gasoline. Sour Diesel is rumored to come from Chem Dog strain. Some marijuana experts say very strongly the original Sour Diesel came from Reservoir Seeds. The original 13 beans from Reservoir Seeds of Sour Diesel were bred for max efficiency. The high performing Sour D, OG Kush and Chem Dog, all are from Reservoir Seeds. Many stories about Sour Diesels origin, some fact, some fiction. Many growers from the early 1990's claim to have to first Sour Diesel strain with many different stories behind them. Sour Diesel also known as: Sour D, East Coast Sour Diesel and NY Sour Diesel. Cross breeds of Sour Diesel exist, such as New York City Diesel, a Sour Diesel cross with Afghani and Hawaiian Indicas.
Development
Sour Diesel is a tall, thin green plant. It stretches in the first 3 weeks of flowering. By maturity Sour Diesel could reach 6 feet indoors. Flowering time is approximately ten weeks indoors, while outdoor plants will finish in early October, although grown indoors using a hydroponic growing system is highly recommended. Sour Diesel commonly displays orange hairs, and a strong diesel fuel scent and flavor. It can be grown indoors and outdoors. Sour Diesel was awarded the High Times Cannabis Cup in 2006.
Notes
- ^ "Marijuana". CESAR: Center for Substance Abuse Research. http://www.cesar.umd.edu/cesar/drugs/marijuana.asp. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
Sources
- Marijuana Strain Library: Sour Diesel Marijuana Strain
- Cannabis Culture Magazine: Sour Diesel
- Sour Diesel - Medical Marijuana Strain
- HighTimes.com - Top 10 Strains of the Year 2005
- Colorado Medical Marijuana
- The Medicinal Uses of Cannabis and Cannabinoids
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Cannabis (/ˈkænəbɪs/) is a genus of flowering plants that includes three different species, Cannabis sativa,[2]Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis.[1] These species are indigenous to Central and South Asia.[3]Cannabis has long been used for hemp fibre, for seed and seed oils, for medicinal purposes, and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from Cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber. To satisfy the UN Narcotics Convention, some Cannabis strains have been bred to produce minimal levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the principal psychoactive constituent responsible for the high associated with it and which is obtained through the dried flowers of Cannabis plants selectively bred to produce high levels of THC and other psychoactive cannabinoids. Various extracts including hashish and hash oil are also produced from the plant.[4]
Contents
Etymology[edit]
The word cannabis is from Greek κάνναβις (kánnabis) (see Latin cannabis),[5] which was originally Scythian or Thracian.[6] It is related to the Persian kanab, the English canvas and possibly even to the English hemp (Old English hænep).[6] In modern Hebrew, קַנַּבּוֹס qannabōs (modern pronunciation: [kanaˈbos]) is used but there are those who have theorized that it was referred to in antiquity as קני בושם q'nei bosem, a component of the biblical anointing oil.[7][8] Old Akkadian qunnabtu, Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian qunnabu were used to refer to the plant meaning "a way to produce smoke."[9][10][11]
Description[edit]
Cannabis is an annual, dioecious, flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or digitate, with serrate leaflets.[12] The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.
The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern that enables persons poorly familiar with the plant to distinguish a Cannabis leaf from unrelated species that have confusingly similar leaves (see illustration). As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip. However, the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down, but the next notch. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will actually pass tangent to the notch, but often it will pass by at a small distance, and when that happens a spur vein (occasionally a pair of such spur veins) branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. This venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabis leaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, but that requires special expertise and equipment.[13]
The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions northwest of the Himalayas.[citation needed] It is also known as hemp, although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use.
Reproduction[edit]
Cannabis normally has imperfect flowers, with staminate "male" and pistillate "female" flowers occurring on separate plants.[14] It is not unusual, however, for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers.[15] Although monoecious plants are often referred to as "hermaphrodites," true hermaphrodites (which are less common) bear staminate and pistillate structures on individual flowers, whereas monoecious plants bear male and female flowers at different locations on the same plant. Male flowers are normally borne on loose panicles, and female flowers are borne on racemes.[16] "At a very early period the Chinese recognized the Cannabis plant as dioecious,"[17] and the (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya dictionary defined xi 枲 "male Cannabis" and fu 莩 (or ju 苴) "female Cannabis".[18]
All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated[19] and the fruit is an achene.[20] Most strains of Cannabis are short day plants,[19] with the possible exception of C. sativa subsp. sativa var. spontanea (= C. ruderalis), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be day-neutral.
Biochemistry and drugs[edit]
Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which produce mental and physical effects when consumed.
Cannabinoids, terpenoids, and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants.[21] As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flower buds (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hashish oil.[4] In the early 20th century, it became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for sale or personal use.
Chromosomes and genome[edit]
Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid, having a chromosome complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced.[22] The first genome sequence of Cannabis, which is estimated to be 820 Mb in size, was published in 2011 by a team of Canadian scientists.[23]
Taxonomy[edit]
The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the Nettle (Urticaceae) or Mulberry (Moraceae) family, and later, along with the Humulus genus (hops), in a separate family, the Hemp family (Cannabaceae sensu stricto).[24] Recent phylogenetic studies based on cpDNA restriction site analysis and gene sequencing strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae sensu stricto arose from within the former Celtidaceae family, and that the two families should be merged to form a single monophyletic family, the Cannabaceae sensu lato.[25][26]
Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as species, subspecies, or varieties:[27]
- plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types.
- plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types.
- escaped, hybridised, or wild forms of either of the above types.
Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from consuming marijuana. There are 483 identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant,[28] and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant.[29] The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol (CBD) and/or Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), but only THC is psychoactive.[citation needed] Since the early 1970s, Cannabis plants have been categorized by their chemical phenotype or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.[30] Although overall cannabinoid production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.[31] Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F1) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.[30][32]
Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species.[33] One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."[34] Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.[34]Physiological barriers to reproduction are not known to occur within Cannabis, and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.[22] However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled Cannabis gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.[35] It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.[36][37][38]
History of cannabis[edit]
Cannabis sativa appears naturally in many tropical and humid parts of the world. Its use as a mind-altering drug has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Euro-Asia and Africa.[39]
The oldest written record of cannabis usage is the Greek historian Herodotus's reference to the central Eurasian Scythians taking cannabis steam baths.[40] His (c. 440 BCE) Histories records, "The Scythians, as I said, take some of this hemp-seed [presumably, flowers], and, creeping under the felt coverings, throw it upon the red-hot stones; immediately it smokes, and gives out such a vapour as no Grecian vapour-bath can exceed; the Scyths, delighted, shout for joy."[41] Classical Greeks and Romans were using cannabis, while in the Middle East, use spread throughout the Islamic empire to North Africa. In 1545 cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, clothing and paper.[42][43][44][45]
Early classifications[edit]
The Cannabis genus was first classified using the "modern" system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species.[46] He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named Cannabis sativa L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis, which he named Cannabis indica Lam.[47] Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described C. indica as having poorer fiber quality than C. sativa, but greater utility as an inebriant. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin.[48] However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias, and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.[49]
20th century[edit]
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. sativa or a separate species, and proposed C. sativa L. var. ruderalis Janisch. and Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. as alternative names.[27] In 1929, renowned plant explorer Nikolai Vavilov assigned wild or feral populations of Cannabis in Afghanistan to C. indica Lam. var. kafiristanica Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to C. sativa L. var. spontanea Vav.[32][48] In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. Within C. sativa they recognized two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. culta Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and C. sativa L. subsp. spontanea (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. sativa subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies culta. However, they did not divide C. indica into subspecies or varieties.[27][50] This excessive splitting of C. sativa proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.
In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting Cannabis in the United States and Canada specifically named products of C. sativa as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. sativa, and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.[36][37] The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.[51]
In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small[52] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. sativa L. subsp. sativa, and C. sativa L. subsp. indica (Lam.) Small & Cronq.[48] The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; C. sativa subsp. sativa was presumably selected for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas C. sativa subsp. indica was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. sativa L. subsp. sativa var. spontanea Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant Cannabis, and C. sativa subsp. indica var. kafiristanica (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters.[30][48][53]
Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist Richard E. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the 1970s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. sativa, C. indica, and C. ruderalis.[54][55][56][57] For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that Cannabis is monotypic, with only a single species.[58] According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, C. sativa is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, C. indica is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and C. ruderalis is short, branchless, and grows wild in central Asia. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug strains from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.[59]
Continuing research[edit]
Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis, primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes.[60][61][62][63][64] Dutch Cannabis researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars.[31] They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the Cannabis gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species, although theirs was not a systematic study per se.
Karl W. Hillig, a graduate student in the laboratory of long-time Cannabis researcher Paul G. Mahlberg[65] at Indiana University, conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among 157 Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their Cannabis germplasm collection. They used gas chromatography to determine cannabinoid content and to infer allele frequencies of the gene that controls CBD and THC production within the studied populations, and concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species, but not C. ruderalis.[32] The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to C. sativa. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. indica. In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was the first in the series, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing C. sativa, C. indica, and (tentatively) C. ruderalis.[35] In his doctoral dissertation published the same year, Hillig stated that principal components analysis of phenotypic (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that canonical variates analysis resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa.[66] Another paper in the series on chemotaxonomic variation in the terpenoid content of the essential oil of Cannabis revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in the collection had relatively high levels of certain sesquiterpene alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.[67] Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of C. sativa and C. indica as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat C. ruderalis as a separate species from C. sativa at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.
In September 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.[68] The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal Forensic Science International.[69]
Popular usage[edit]
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. Sativa is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. Indica designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. Ruderalis is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.
Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type Cannabis often describe the ancestry or gross phenotypic characteristics of cultivars by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."
Reproduction[edit]
Breeding systems[edit]
Cannabis is predominantly dioecious,[19][70] although many monoecious varieties have been described.[71] Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.[72][73][74] Many populations have been described as sexually labile.[62][75][76]
As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.[77] Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where typically the female flowers are used. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops.[72] However, sativa strains often produce monoecious individuals, probably as a result of inbreeding.
Mechanisms of sex determination[edit]
Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants.[77] Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in Cannabis.
Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp, it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an XY sex-determination system is present.[75] At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.[78] Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,[79] and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.[76]
Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants.[70] Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.[80]
Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. Ainsworth describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage type".[70]
The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see History of Cytogenetics). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious "Kentucky" hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious "Kentucky" hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious "Kentucky" hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX.[81] According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of Cannabis had been published as of 1996.[82] Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.[83]
More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors[84][85] have used RAPD to isolate several genetic marker sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and AFLP.[31][62][86] Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating,
"It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination.[70] "
Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.[87] Many researchers have suggested that sex in Cannabis is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors.[76] Ainsworth reviews that treatment with auxin and ethylene have feminizing effects, and that treatment with cytokinins and gibberellins have masculinizing effects.[70] It has been reported that sex can be reversed in Cannabis using chemical treatment.[88] A PCR-based method for the detection of female-associated DNA polymorphisms by genotyping has been developed.[89]
Industrial and personal uses[edit]
Cannabis is used for a wide variety of purposes.
Hemp[edit]
The term Hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber from the Cannabis Plant stem (stalk). Cannabis sativa cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa varieties may grow more than six metres tall. However, hemp can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that is not intended for use as a drug. Many countries regulate limits for psychoactive compound (THC) concentrations in products labeled as hemp.
Hemp is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre[90] ranging from paper, cordage, construction material and textiles in general, to clothing. Hemp is stronger and longer-lasting than cotton. It also is a useful source of foodstuffs (hemp milk, hemp seed, hemp oil) and biofuels. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe (and later North America) during the last 12,000 years.[90][91] In modern times novel applications and improvements have been explored with modest commercial success.[92][93]
Psychoactive drug[edit]
Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind ethanol, caffeine and tobacco. In the United States alone, it is believed that over 100 million Americans have tried Cannabis, with 25 million Americans having used it within the past year.[95]
The psychoactive effects of Cannabis are known to have a biphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking, introspection and metacognition have been reported amongst cases of anxiety and paranoia.[96] Finally, the tertiary psychoactive effects of the drug cannabis, can include an increase in heart rate and hunger, believed to be caused by 11-OH-THC, a psychoactive metabolite of THC produced in the liver.
Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe, bong or vaporizer.[96] However, if a large amount is taken orally the effects may last much longer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug.
Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil[4] which, because of appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated.
Cannabidiol (CBD), which has no psychotropic effects by itself[97] (although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine),[98] attenuates, or reduces[99] the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone.[100]
According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in 2007, Cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol.[101] However, everyday use of Cannabis can in some cases be correlated with psychological withdrawal symptoms such as irritability and insomnia,[96] and evidence could suggest that if a user experiences stress, the likeliness of getting a panic attack increases because of an increase of THC metabolites.[102][103] However, Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are typically mild and are never life-threatening.[104]
Medical use[edit]
Medical cannabis (or medical marijuana) refers to the use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids, such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), as medical therapy to treat disease or alleviate symptoms. The Cannabis plant has a history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years across many cultures.[105]
Cannabis has been used to reduce nausea and vomiting in chemotherapy and people with AIDS, and to treat pain and muscle spasticity;[106] its use for other medical applications has been studied but there is insufficient data for conclusions about safety and efficacy. Short-term use increases minor adverse effects, but does not appear to increase major adverse effects.[107] Long-term effects are not clear,[107] and there are safety concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk for dependence and the risk of children taking it by accident.[106]
Ancient and religious uses[edit]
The Yanghai Tombs, a vast ancient cemetery (54 000 m2) situated in the Turfan district of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, have revealed the 2700-year-old grave of a shaman. He is thought to have belonged to the Jushi culture recorded in the area centuries later in the Hanshu, Chap 96B.[108] Near the head and foot of the shaman was a large leather basket and wooden bowl filled with 789g of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. An international team demonstrated that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive component of cannabis. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. This is the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent.[109]
Settlements which date from c. 2200–1700 BCE in the Bactria and Margiana contained elaborate ritual structures with rooms containing everything needed for making drinks containing extracts from poppy (opium), hemp (cannabis), and ephedra (which contains ephedrine).[110]
"While we have no evidence of the use of ephedra among the steppe tribes, we have already seen that they did share in the cultic use of hemp, a practice that ranged from Romania east to the Yenisei River from at least the 3rd millennium BC onwards where its use was later encountered in the apparatus for smoking hemp found at Pazyryk."[111]
Cannabis is first referred to in Hindu Vedas between 2000 and 1400 BCE, in the Atharvaveda. By the 10th century CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in India as "food of the gods".[112] Cannabis use eventually became a ritual part of the Hindu festival of Holi.
In Buddhism, cannabis is generally regarded as an intoxicant and may be a hindrance to development of meditation and clear awareness. In ancient Germanic culture, Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya.[113][114] An anointing oil mentioned in Exodus is, by some translators, said to contain Cannabis.[115]Sufis have used Cannabis in a spiritual context since the 13th century CE.[116]
In modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament.[117] Elders of the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church, a religious movement founded in the United States in 1975 with no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church, consider Cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ.[118] Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life.[119][120] Other organized religions founded in the 20th century that treat Cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,[121]Cantheism,[122] the Cannabis Assembly[123] and the Church of Cognizance. Rastafarians tend to be among the biggest consumers of modern Cannabis use.
Aspects of cannabis production and use[edit]
- Cannabis cultivation discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes.
- Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a recreational drug and medication.
- Medical cannabis discusses its use as a medication.
- Health issues and the effects of cannabis discusses the pharmacology, physical, and mental effects of Cannabis when used as drug.
- Hemp discusses its uses as a source of housing, oil, food, fibers, milk substitute and industrial materials.
- Legality of cannabis focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using Cannabis as a drug.
- Spiritual use of cannabis discusses sacramental and religious use.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
- Deitch, Robert (2003). Hemp: American History Revisited: The Plant with a Divided History. Algora Pub. ISBN 0-87586-206-3.
- Earleywine, Mitchell (2005). Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513893-7.
- Emmett, David; Graeme Nice (2009). What you need to know about cannabis: understanding the facts. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-697-3.
- Hulsewé, A. F. P. (1979). China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. E. J. Brill, Leiden. ISBN 90-04-05884-2.
- Geoffrey William, Guy; Brian Anthony Whittle; Philip Robson (2004). The medicinal uses of cannabis and cannabinoids. Pharmaceutical Press. ISBN 0-85369-517-2.
- Holland, Julie M.D. (2010). The Pot Book: A Complete Guide to Cannabis: Its Role in Medicine, Politics, science, and culture. Park Street Press. ISBN 978-1-59477-368-6.
- Iversen, Leslie L (2008). The science of marijuana (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532824-0.
- Jenkins, Richard (2006). Cannabis and Young People: Reviewing the Evidence. Jessica Kingsley. ISBN 1-84310-398-2.
- Lambert, Didier M (2008). Cannabinoids in Nature and Medicine. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3-906390-56-X.
- Mallory, J. P. and Victor H. Mair (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson, London. ISBN 0-500-05101-1.
- Roffman, Roger A; Robert S. Stephens (2006). Cannabis Dependence: Its Nature, Consequences, and Treatment. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81447-2.
- Russo, Ethan; Melanie Creagan Dreher; Mary Lynn Mathre (2004). Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Sociology. Haworth Press. ISBN 0-7890-2101-3.
- Solowij, Nadia (1998). Cannabis and Cognitive Functioning. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59114-7.
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