Species
Leporidae
IUCN
NCBI
EOL Text
Leporids can be found in a wide range of environments, from open deserts to boreal forests. Habitat preference and cursorial ability are tightly linked, and as a result, hares and rabbits have distinct habitat requirements. Hares are most often found in open habitat where they can use their speed to evade potential predators. They also rely on their well-camouflaged pelage to hide from predators among the shrubs and rocks. However, some hare species, such as snowshoe hares and Manchurian hares, are well-adapted forest dwellers. While hares are most often found in open habitats, rabbits are confined to habitats with dense cover where they can hide amongst the vegetation or in burrows. Some species of rabbit, such as swamp rabbits and marsh rabbits are excellent swimmers and are considered semi-aquatic. In short, cursorially adept leporids reside in open habitats, whereas cursorially challenged species reside in closed habitats.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; polar ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; taiga ; desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest ; mountains
Wetlands: marsh ; swamp ; bog
Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural ; riparian
- Wilson, D., S. Ruff. 1999. The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Hutchins, M. 2004. Lagomorpha. Pp. 417-516 in D Kleiman, V Geist, M McDade, eds. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 16, Second Edition. New York: Thomson & Gale.
- MacDonald, D. 2001. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford: Andromeda Oxford Limited.
- Vaughan, T., J. Ryan, N. Czaplewski. 2000. Mammalogy. Fort Worth, TX: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning.
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Leporids are obligate herbivores, with diets consisting of grasses, clover, and limited amounts of cruciferous (e.g., plants from the Brassicaceae family such as broccoli and brussels sprouts) and composite plants. They are opportunistic feeders and also eat fruits, seeds, roots, buds, and the bark of trees. During periods of high resource abundance, leporids tend to select forage in pre-reproductive and early reproductive stages of development. In general, the leporid diet is deficient in essential vitamins and micro-nutrients. Plant forage is high in fiber and contains cellulose and lignin as well. Mammals do not possess the digestive enzymes needed to breakdown these compounds. To compensate for this, however, the leporid caecum is up to ten times longer than their stomach and contains a diverse microbial community that helps break down cellulose and lignin. In addition, gut flora passing from the cecum into the small intestine are a significant source of protein for leporids, which have a notoriously protein deficient diet. Leporids are also coprophagic, re-ingesting soft green fecal pellets produced by the cecum. In addition to offsetting their dietary deficiencies, is has been suggested that coprophagy in leporids developed as a predator defense mechanism, allowing them to subsist in the safety of their burrows.
Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Frugivore , Granivore , Lignivore)
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Long thought of as pests, rabbits and hares are well known for the damage they inflict on agriculture. As generalist herbivores, leporids are known for their voracious appetite and high reproductive potential. Their role as pests often overshadows their important role in maintaining canivore biological diversity, as leporids are an integral piece of the carnivore food chain. Their importance as a food source for small to medium-sized carnivores is well-illustrated by the 10 year cycle in which Canada lynx abundance closely mimics that of Snowshoe hare.
Leporids are host to a diverse array of endo- and ectoparasites. Many species of parasitic flatworms (Cestoda and Trematoda) and roundworms spend at least part of their lifecycle in the tissues of leporid hosts. Leporids are also vulnerable to various forms of of parasitic arthropods including ticks, mites, fleas, mosquitoes, and flies. Leporids also host various forms of parasitic protozoa (e.g., coccidians). Myxomytosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease, caused by members of the viral genus Lagovirus, have resulted in the death of millions of wild and domestic leporids.
Ecosystem Impact: keystone species
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
- flatworms (Cestoda and Trematoda)
- roundworms (Nematoda)
- ticks (Ixodoidea)
- mites (Acari)
- fleas (Siphonaptera)
- mosquitoes (Culicidae)
- flies (Diptera)
- coccidians (Coccidae)
- myxoma virus (Myxoma)
- calcivirus (Lagovirus)
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Leporids are a major prey item for a large number of mammalian and avian predators including humans, owls, hawks and eagles, falcons, wild, domestic, and feral canids, wild, domestic and feral felids, a number of different mustelid species, and some species of ground squirrel. Predation has likely had a major impact on the evolution of leporids as they are clearly adapted for fast and efficient cursorial locomotion. Their hindlimbs are significantly longer than their forelimbs, which gives them the ability to run in a zig-zag fashion increasing their chances of evading predators. While hares prefer to outrun their pursuers, rabbits find safety in dense cover or in a nearby burrow. Their large ears help them detect approaching predators, and the lateral position of their eyes gives them a complete 360 degree field of vision. Some species, such as snowshoe hare, have large pads on their feet that act as gripping cushions as they run across deep snow to evade predators. Some leporids are especially well adept at hiding from predators. For example, European hares practice motionless “ducking”. Upon detecting an approaching predator, they decrease their heart rate by half, which allows them to remain exceptionally still. Ducking also reduces respiration rates and probably decreases sounds produced during respiration.
Many cold-adapted leporids molt before winter and summer, which helps camouflage them from predators regardless of season. Winter pelage, which is typically snowy-white, consists of longer and denser hair that increases the coat's insulative capabilities. The winter coat is then molted in the spring, as the the typical brown summer pelage returns. Young hares are born above ground and are able to see and evade predators a few hours after birth. Rabbits are often born in a fur-lined underground nest. After nursing, mothers exit this nest from a secure “brooding tube”, which they carefully conceal after each visit. Rabbits are born with their eyes closed, and must be nursed before they are able to evade predators.
Known Predators:
- humans (Homo sapiens)
- owls (Strigiformes)
- hawks and eagles (Accipitridae)
- falcons (Falconiformes)
- wild, domestic, and feral dogs (Canidae)
- wild and feral cats (Felidae)
- mustelids (Mustelidae)
- ground squirrels (Spermophilus)
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
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Leporidae (rabbit carcass) is prey of:
Homo sapiens
Accipiter gentilis
Bubo virginianus
Mustelinae
Canis latrans
Mephitinae
Trichostrongylus retortaeformis
Graphidium strigosum
Passalurus ambiguus
Mustela erminea
Circus
Strix varia
Canis aureus
Felis silvestris libyca
Vulpes vulpes
Accipiter badius
Canis lupus
Necrophorus humator
Necrophorus vespillo
Thanotophilus rugosus
Thanotophilus sinuatus
Ptomophagus subvillosus
Catops fuscus
Catops kirbii
Saprinus semistriatus
Hister striola
Hister cadaverinus
Hister carbonarius
Sarcophaga
Calliphora
Lucilia sericata
Myrmica laevinodes
Piophila varipes
Piophila foveolata
Vespula vulgaris
Fannia scalaris
Cercyon lateralis
Cercyon unipunctatus
Based on studies in:
Canada: Manitoba (Forest)
New Zealand (Grassland)
USA: Illinois (Forest)
India, Rajasthan Desert (Desert or dune)
England (Carrion substrate)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- A. C. Twomey, The bird population of an elm-maple forest with special reference to aspection, territorialism, and coactions, Ecol. Monogr. 15(2):175-205, from p. 202 (1945).
- K. Paviour-Smith, The biotic community of a salt meadow in New Zealand, Trans. R. Soc. N.Z. 83(3):525-554, from p. 542 (1956).
- R. D. Bird, Biotic communities of the Aspen Parkland of central Canada, Ecology, 11:356-442, from p. 410 (1930).
- I. K. Sharma, A study of ecosystems of the Indian desert, Trans. Indian Soc. Desert Technol. and Univ. Center Desert Stud. 5(2):51-55, from p. 52 and A study of agro-ecosystems in the Indian desert, ibid. 5:77-82, from p. 79 1980).
- R. F. Chapman and J. H. P. Sankey, 1955. The larger invertebrate fauna of three rabbit carcasses. J. Anim. Ecol. 24:395-402, from p. 400.
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Leporidae (rabbit carcass) preys on:
Pryola
Corylus
Populus
Cornus
Aralia
Salix longifolia
Salix petiolaris
leaves
wood
bark
roots
Stipagrostis
Monsonia
Eragrostis
Eleucine
Cyperus
Cenchrus
Zizyphus
Crotalaria
Based on studies in:
Canada: Manitoba (Forest)
New Zealand (Grassland)
USA: Illinois (Forest)
Namibia, Namib Desert (Desert or dune)
India, Rajasthan Desert (Desert or dune)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- A. C. Twomey, The bird population of an elm-maple forest with special reference to aspection, territorialism, and coactions, Ecol. Monogr. 15(2):175-205, from p. 202 (1945).
- E. Holm and C. H. Scholtz, Structure and pattern of the Namib Desert dune ecosystem at Gobabeb, Madoqua 12(1):3-39, from p. 21 (1980).
- K. Paviour-Smith, The biotic community of a salt meadow in New Zealand, Trans. R. Soc. N.Z. 83(3):525-554, from p. 542 (1956).
- R. D. Bird, Biotic communities of the Aspen Parkland of central Canada, Ecology, 11:356-442, from p. 410 (1930).
- I. K. Sharma, A study of ecosystems of the Indian desert, Trans. Indian Soc. Desert Technol. and Univ. Center Desert Stud. 5(2):51-55, from p. 52 and A study of agro-ecosystems in the Indian desert, ibid. 5:77-82, from p. 79 1980).
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Rights holder/Author | Cynthia Sims Parr, Joel Sachs, SPIRE |
Source | http://spire.umbc.edu/fwc/ |
Very few species of leporids communicate through auditory methods, as most rely on their senses of sight and smell for intraspecific communication. However, certain species (e.g., volcano rabbits) rely heavily on vocalizations for intraspecific communication. Though leporids are typically silent, they still posses a highly developed and acute sense of hearing and emit high pitched distress calls when captured by a predator. For example, European rabbits, brush rabbits, and Audubon's cottontails are known to thump the ground with their hind feet to warn conspecifics of potential danger (e.g., approaching predators). Many leporids have white fur on the ventral surface of their tail, which they silently wave at conspecifics to warn of a predator's presence.
Leporids possess large, protruding eyes that are laterally positioned near the apex of the skull. The position and protrusion of the eyes help them detect predators over a wide visual arc and aid in overcoming the low light availability during crepuscular and nocturnal conditions, during which they are most active.
All Leporids have scent glands in the groin, cheeks, and under the chin that are used to rub pheromones on their coat during grooming. These glands and the pheromones they produce likely play an important role during mating. Glandular activity in male leporids, specifically the amount of pheromone produced and its degree of pungency, is correlated with testicle size. It has been suggested that pheromones serve as a status marker that identify one's position in the social hierarchy.
Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks ; vibrations
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; vibrations ; chemical
- Whitaker, J. 1996. National Audobon Society Field Guide to North American Mammals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
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Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Leporidae/ |
Leporid’s face a number of factors that affect longevity, the most notable being heavy predation from a variety of mammalian, reptilian, and avian predators. In their natural environment, populations of certain species have been shown to have an average lifespan of less than a year. The oldest recorded age for European hares in the wild was 12.5 years with the maximum age estimated to be between 12 to 13 years.
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Most leporid species are polygynandrous. During mating season males and females form small groups in which males compete for access to estrus females and establish a social hierarchy. European Rabbits serve as an exception as they are highly social and have established hierarchies prior to mating season. Males find and attract mates by flagging their tail, involuntary urination, and rubbing against the female prior to copulation. Both sexes have multiple mates and females mate soon after giving birth or while carrying a litter. Gestation typically lasts longer in hares than in rabbits. For example, gestation lasts approximately 55 days in mountain hares and 30 days in European rabbits. Hares are born in a precocial state, fully furred with their eyes open, and are able to run a few hours after parturition. Rabbits are born in an altricial state and are able to see a few days after parturition.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Some members of the family Leporidae do not have a specific breeding season while others breed during spring and summer. Female ovulation is induced during copulation, about twelve hours after insemination, and females can come into estrus at various times throughout the year. Many species mate immediately after or just before parturition, as females are able to carry two different litters at once (i.e., superfetation). Leporids have high reproductive potential and can produce several litters per breeding season, with several young per litter. Litters usually consist of 2 to 8 young with a maximum of 15 young rabbits (kittens) or hares (leverets) per litter. Resource abundance and quality play a major role in fecundity. For example, Alaskan hares and arctic hares are subjected to prolonged periods of resource scarcity during the winter and have only one litter per year. Black-tailed jackrabbits and antelope jackrabbits live in desert environments and produce several litters a year; however, the litters of these two species are relatively small, containing only 1 to 3 young.
Hares are born fully furred, with open eyes and are able to run a few hours after birth. Rabbits are born with no hair and closed eyes but often have full pelage and open eyes within a couple of days after birth. Sexual maturity and weaning can occur at a young age for both groups but varies according to species. Generally, sexual maturation can occur from 3 to 9 months after birth in rabbits and 1 to 2 years after birth for hares. Females are larger than males in most species, which is unusual in mammals, and are able to reproduce before males. Weaning age is also species specific, but females generally nurse young for at least 3 to 4 weeks, beginning the weaning process about 10 days after parturition.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; induced ovulation ; fertilization ; viviparous ; post-partum estrous
Leporids employ a reproductive strategy known as "absentee parentism". In hares, precocial leverets are born in forms, small depression in the ground or surrounding vegetation, while altricial rabbit kittens are born in well-formed, fur-lined nests, constructed in underground chambers or in dense vegetation. Maternal care in leporids is limited to one visit every twenty four hours, usually lasting no more than 5 minutes. Mothers nurse their young during this brief period, which usually occurs during the evening. In species that create subterranean nests for their young, the entrances to these chambers are re-covered after each visit. In form nesting hares, each leveret disperses about 3 days after birth to find their own hiding spot, but rejoin their litter-mates everyday around sunset for their daily nursing bout. Absentee parentism is thought to have evolved as a predator defense mechanism. Leporid milk is extremely rich in fat and protein and is rapidly pumped into offspring during nursing bouts. Paternal care is limited to protecting offspring from rival females.
Prior to the birth of the kittens, rabbit mothers prepare a fir-lined nest for her young. Some species create an underground nest that is either part of a communal den or a remote “brooding tube” dug by the mother for the specific purpose of raising her young. Other species give birth in forms, which consist of small surface depressions filled with chewed-up twigs and leaves, or small depressions among the shrubs. Hares give birth above ground in a nest heap or on a patch of exposed soil.
Hares are precocially born while rabbits are altricially born. Sexual maturity and weaning can occur at a young age for both groups but varies according to species. Weaning generally begins about 10 days after birth and can last anywhere from 17 to 23 days depending on the species. Sexual maturation can occur from 3 to 9 months after birth in rabbits and 1 to 2 years after birth for hares. In social leporids, a mother's position in the hierarchy can affect the social status of their young.
Parental Investment: altricial ; precocial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male); maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young
- Feldhamer, G., B. Thompson, J. Chapman. 2003. Wild Mammals of North America. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Gould, E., G. McKay. 1998. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Sydney and San Francisco: Weldon Owen.
- Hall, E. 1981. Order Lagomorpha. Pp. 286-332 in E Hall, ed. The Mammals of North America, Vol. 1, Second Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
- Hutchins, M. 2004. Mammals and humans: Mammalian invasives and pests. Pp. 182-193 in D Kleiman, V Geist, M McDade, eds. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Vol. 12, Second Edition. New York: Thomsan & Gale.
- MacDonald, D. 2001. The Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford: Andromeda Oxford Limited.
- Nowak, R. 1999. Order Lagomorpha. Pp. 1715-1738 in R Nowak, ed. Walker's Mammals of the World, Vol. 2, Sixth Edition. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Schneider, E. 1990. Hares and Rabbits. Pp. 254-299 in S Parker, ed. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Vol. Volume 4, English Language Editioj Edition. New Jersey and New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
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Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Leporidae/ |
Self-medicating prevents disease: rabbits
The ears of rabbits assist in Vitamin D acquisition because they have an oil on the surface that transforms to Vitamin D in sunlight, which is then ingested as the rabbits clean themselves.
"Even rabbits have a therapeutic trick or two - in their case, behind the ears. Mammals need vitamin D - which works with calcium to make healthy bones - in order to prevent such problems as fractures, as well as to keep diseases such as rickets at bay. It is well known that in mammals this vitamin is synthesized when the skin is exposed to sunlight. As noted by John Downer in SuperNatural (1999), rabbits put this principle to good medicinal use when they wash behind their ears with their paws. The oil on the outer surface of the rabbits' extra-long ears contains a chemical that transforms into vitamin D when there is enough sunlight. And when rabbits lick their paws after washing behind their ears, they transfer this vitamin supply to their mouths and, therefore, into their digestive system." (Shuker 2001:218)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Shuker, KPN. 2001. The Hidden Powers of Animals: Uncovering the Secrets of Nature. London: Marshall Editions Ltd. 240 p.
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