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Petromyzontidae
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The northern lampreys (Petromyzontidae) are a family of lampreys. Northern lampreys (Petromyzontidae) have the highest number of chromosomes (164-174) among vertebrates.[1]
References[edit]
- Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2012). "Petromyzontidae" in FishBase. April 2012 version.
- ^ Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2011). "Petromyzontidae" in FishBase. February 2011 version.
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Lampreys (sometimes also called lamprey eels) are a family of jawless fish, whose adults are characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth. Translated from a mixture of Latin and Greek, lamprey means stone lickers (lambere: to lick, and petra: stone). While lampreys are well-known for those species which bore into the flesh of other fish to suck their blood, most species of lamprey are not parasitic and never feed on other fish.[2] In zoology, lampreys are sometimes not considered to be true fish because of their distinctive morphology and physiology. The lampreys are the basal group of Vertebrata (hagfishes are actually not vertebrates, but craniates).
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Physical description
Lampreys live mostly in coastal and fresh waters, although some species, (e.g. Geotria australis, Petromyzon marinus, Entosphenus tridentatus) travel significant distances in the open ocean, as evidenced by their lack of reproductive isolation between populations. They are found in most temperate regions except those in Africa. Their larvae (ammocoetes) have a low tolerance for high water temperatures, which may explain why they are not distributed in the tropics.
Adults physically resemble eels, in that they have no scales, and can range anywhere from 13 to 100 centimetres (5 to 40 inches) long. Lacking paired fins, adult lampreys have large eyes, one nostril on the top of the head, and seven gill pores on each side of the head. The unique morphological characteristics of lampreys, such as their cartilaginous skeleton, suggest they are the sister taxon (see cladistics) of all living jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes), and are usually considered the most basal group of the Vertebrata. They feed on prey as adults by attaching their mouthparts to the target animal's body, then using their teeth to cut through surface tissues until they reach blood and body fluid. They will generally not attack humans unless starved.[3][4]Hagfish, which superficially resemble lampreys, are the sister taxon of the true vertebrates (lampreys and gnathostomes).[4]
Lampreys provide valuable insight into the evolution of the adaptive immune system, as they possess a convergently evolved adaptive immunity with cells that function like the T cells and B cells seen in higher vertebrates. Lamprey leukocytes express surface variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) generated from somatic recombination of leucine-rich repeats gene segments in a recombination activating gene-independent manner.[5][6]
Geotria australis larvae also have a very high tolerance for free iron in the body, and have well-developed biochemical systems for detoxification of the large quantities of these metal ions.[7]
Fossils
Lamprey fossils are rare because cartilage does not fossilize as readily as bone. The first fossil lampreys were originally found in Early Carboniferous limestones,[8] laid down in marine sediments in North America: Mayomyzon pieckoensis and Hardistiella montanensis.
In the 22 June 2006 issue of Nature, Mee-mann Chang and colleagues reported on a fossil lamprey from the same Early Cretaceous lagerstätten that have yielded feathered dinosaurs, in the Yixian Formation of Inner Mongolia. The new species, morphologically similar to Carboniferous and modern forms, was given the name Mesomyzon mengae ("Mesozoic lamprey"). The exceedingly well-preserved fossil showed a well-developed sucking oral disk, a relatively long branchial apparatus showing branchial basket, seven gill pouches, gill arches and even the impressions of gill filaments, and about 80 myomeres of its musculature.
Months later, in the 27 October issue of Nature, a fossil lamprey even older than the Mazon Creek genera, dated 360 million years ago, was reported from Witteberg Group rocks near Grahamstown, in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. This species, dubbed Priscomyzon riniensis still strongly resembled modern lampreys despite its Devonian age.[9]
Taxonomy
Some researchers have classified lampreys as the sole surviving representatives of the Linnean class Cephalaspidomorphi.[10] Fossil evidence now suggests lampreys and cephalaspids acquired their shared characters by convergent evolution.[11][12] As such, many newer works, such as the fourth edition of Fishes of the World, classify lampreys in a separate group called Petromyzontida (or Hyperoartia).[13]
The lampreys entail the single order Petromyzontiformes and family Petromyzontidae.[14]
The following taxonomy is based upon the treatment by FishBase as of April 2012. Within this order, there are 10 genera and three families:
- Family Geotriidae
- Genus Geotria
- Family Mordaciidae
- Genus Mordacia
- Family Petromyzontidae
- Genus Caspiomyzon
- Genus Entosphenus
- Genus Eudontomyzon
- Genus Ichthyomyzon
- Genus Lampetra
- Genus Lethenteron
- Genus Petromyzon
- Genus Tetrapleurodon
Taxonomists[who?] place lampreys and hagfish in the subphylum Vertebrata of the phylum Chordata, which also includes the invertebrate subphyla Tunicata (sea-squirts) and the fish-like Cephalochordata (lancelets or Amphioxus). Recent molecular and morphological phylogenetic studies place lampreys and hagfish in the superclass Agnatha or Agnathostomata (both meaning without jaws). The other vertebrate superclass is Gnathostomata (jawed mouths) and includes the classes Chondrichthyes (sharks), Osteichthyes (bony fishes), Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves (birds), and Mammalia.
Relation to humans
Uses
Lampreys have long been used as food for humans. They were highly appreciated by ancient Romans. During the Middle Ages, they were widely eaten by the upper classes throughout Europe, especially during fasting periods, since their taste is much meatier than that of most true fish. King Henry I of England is said to have died from eating "a surfeit of lampreys".[15] On March 4th, 1953, Queen Elizabeth's coronation pie was made by the Royal Air Force using lampreys.[16]
Especially in southwestern Europe (Portugal, Spain, and France), larger lampreys are still a highly prized delicacy. Overfishing has reduced their number in those parts. Lampreys are also consumed in Sweden, Finland, Russia, the Baltic countries and South Korea. In Britain, lampreys are commonly used as bait, normally as dead bait. Pike, perch and chub all can be caught on lampreys. Frozen lampreys can be bought from most bait and tackle shops.
Research
The lamprey has been extensively studied because its relatively simple brain is thought in many respects to reflect the brain structure of early vertebrate ancestors. Beginning in the 1970s, Sten Grillner and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm have used the lamprey as a model system to work out the fundamental principles of motor control in vertebrates, starting in the spinal cord and working toward the brain.[17] In a series of studies, they found neural circuits within the spinal cord are capable of generating the rhythmic motor patterns that underlie swimming, these circuits are controlled by specific locomotor areas in the brainstem and midbrain, and these areas, in turn, are controlled by higher brain structures, including the basal ganglia and tectum. In a study of the lamprey tectum published in 2007,[18] they found electrical stimulation could elicit eye movements, lateral bending movements, or swimming activity, and the type, amplitude, and direction of movement varied as a function of the location within the tectum that was stimulated. These findings were interpreted as consistent with the idea that the tectum generates goal-directed locomotion in the lamprey as it does in other species.
Lampreys are used as a model organism in biomedical research where their large reticulospinal axons are used to investigate synaptic transmission.[19] The axons of lamprey are particularly large and allow for microinjection of substances for experimental manipulation.
As pests
Sea lampreys have become a major plague in the North American Great Lakes after artificial canals allowed their entry during the early 20th century. They are considered an invasive species, have no natural enemies in the lakes and prey on many species of commercial value, such as lake trout. Lampreys are now found mostly in the streams that feed the lakes, with special barriers to prevent the upstream movement of adults, or by the application of toxicants called lampricides, which are harmless to most other aquatic species. However, those programs are complicated and expensive, and do not eradicate the lampreys from the lakes, but merely keep them in check. New programs are being developed, including the use of chemically sterilized male lampreys in a method akin to the sterile insect technique. Research currently under way on the use of pheromones and how they may be used to disrupt the life cycle (Sorensen, et al., 2005) has met with some success.[20] Control of sea lampreys in the Great Lakes is conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans. The work is coordinated by the Great Lakes Fishery Commission.
Lake Champlain, bordered by New York State, Vermont, and Quebec, and New York's Finger Lakes are also home to high populations of sea lampreys which warrant control. Lake Champlain's lamprey control program is managed by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, the Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. New York's Finger Lakes sea lamprey control program is managed solely by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation.
Folklore
Lampreys are called "nine-eyed eels" (i.e., per side) from a counting of their seven external gill slits on a side with one eye and the nostril. A German word for lamprey is Neunauge, which means "nine-eye".
In literature
Vedius Pollio was punished by Augustus for attempting to feed a clumsy slave to the lampreys in his fish pond.
- ...one of his slaves had broken a crystal cup. Vedius ordered him to be seized and then put to death, but in an unusual way. He ordered him to be thrown to the huge lampreys which he had in his fish pond. Who would not think he did this for display? Yet it was out of cruelty. The boy slipped from the captor’s hands and fled to Caesar’s feet asking nothing else other than a different way to die — he did not want to be eaten. Caesar was moved by the novelty of the cruelty and ordered him to be released, all the crystal cups to be broken before his eyes, and the fish pond to be filled in... – Seneca, On Anger, III, 40[21]
Crassus was mocked by Domitius for weeping over the death of his pet lamprey:
- So, when Domitius said to Crassus the orator, Did not you weep for the death of the lamprey you kept in your fish pond? — Did not you, said Crassus to him again, bury three wives without ever shedding a tear? – Plutarch, On the Intelligence of Animals, 976a[22]
This story is also found in Aelian (Various Histories VII, 4) and Macrobius (Saturnalia III.15.3). It is included by Hugo von Hofmannsthal in the Chandos Letter:
- And in my mind I compare myself from time to time with the orator Crassus, of whom it is reported that he grew so excessively enamoured of a tame lamprey - a dumb, apathetic, red-eyed fish in his ornamental pond - that it became the talk of the town; and when one day in the Senate Domitius reproached him for having shed tears over the death of this fish, attempting thereby to make him appear a fool, Crassus answered, "Thus have I done over the death of my fish as you have over the death of neither your first nor your second wife."
- I know not how oft this Crassus with his lamprey enters my mind as a mirrored image of my Self, reflected across the abyss of centuries.
"Lampreys have been seen before attacking a human in the great lakes. The lamprey let go a few seconds later after realizing its mistake. The man (who chose to be not named) was taken to the hospital with various injuries." – From Jules Verne's novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.
Notes
- ^ Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2009). "Petromyzontiformes" in FishBase. January 2009 version.
- ^ Hardisty, M. W., and Potter, I. C. (1971). The Biology of Lampreys 1st ed. (Academic Press Inc.).
- ^ Liem, Karel F.; William E. Bemis, Warren F. Walker, Jr., Lance Grande (2001). Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates. The United States of America: Thomson: Brooks/Cole. pp. 50. ISBN 0-03-022369-5.
- ^ a b Haaramo, Mikko (2008-03-11). "Mikko's Phylogeny Archive". http://www.helsinki.fi/~mhaaramo/metazoa/deuterostoma/chordata/vertebrata.html#Chondrichthyes. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
- ^ Nature.com
- ^ Nature Immunology 2007.
- ^ Macey, D. J.; Cake, M. H.; Potter, I. C. (1988). "Exceptional iron concentrations in larval lampreys (Geotria australis) and the activities of superoxide radical detoxifying enzymes". Biochemical Journal 252 (1): 167–172. PMC 1149120. PMID 3421899. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1149120.
- ^ From the Mississippian Mazon Creek lagerstätte and the Bear Gulch Limestone sequence.
- ^ "Discovery of the Oldest Fossil Lamprey in the World". University of the Witwatersrand. 2006-10-26. http://web.wits.ac.za/NewsRoom/NewsItems/Lamprey.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ Cephalaspidomorpha is sometimes given as a subclass of the Cephalaspidomorphi.
- ^ Forey, Peter, & Janvier, Philippe (2000). "Agnathans and the origin of jawed vertebrates". In Gee, Henry. Shaking the tree: readings from Nature in the history of life. USA: University of Chicago Press; Nature/Macmillan Magazines. pp. 251–266. ISBN 9780226284972
- ^ Janvier, Philippe (2008). "Early Jawless Vertebrates and Cyclostome Origins". Zoological Science 25 (10): 1045–1056. doi:10.2108/zsj.25.1045. PMID 19267641.
- ^ Nelson, J. S. (2006). Fishes of the World (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. pp. 601 pp.. ISBN 0-471-25031-7.
- ^ Petromyzoniformes and Petromyzonidae are sometimes used as alternative spellings for Petromyzontiformes and Petromyzontidae, respectively.
- ^ "A Surfeit of Lampreys". Time. 1955-05-09. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,861450,00.html. Retrieved 2008-06-07.
- ^ BBC News 2012
- ^ Grillner, 2003
- ^ Saitoh et al., 2007
- ^ Giant reticulospinal synapse in lamprey: molecular links between active and periactive zones, Brodin L. et al., Cell Tissue Res. 2006.
- ^ News.BBC.co.uk
- ^ Thelatinlibrary.com
- ^ [1]
References
- Mee-mann Chang et al. (2006). "A lamprey from the Cretaceous Jehol biota of China". Nature 441 (7096): 972–974 (22 June 2006). doi:10.1038/nature04730. PMID 16791193.
- Sorensen, P; Fine, J; Dvornikovs, V; Jeffrey, C; Shao, F; Wang, J; Vrieze, L; Anderson, K; Hoye, T. (2005). "Mixture of new sulfated steroids functions as a migratory pheromone in the sea lamprey". Nature Chemical Biology 1 (November): 324–328. doi:10.1038/nchembio739. PMID 16408070.
- Fisher (1994). Fishes of the World, Third Edition. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-54713-1.
- Gess, Robert W.; Coates, Michael I.; Rubidge, Bruce S. (2006). "A lamprey from the Devonian period of South Africa". Nature 443 (7114): 981–984. doi:10.1038/nature05150. PMID 17066033.
- Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2011). "Petromyzontidae" in FishBase. February 2011 version.
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Lampreys have a suction mouth with several rings of teeth. With these teeth, they can clamp themselves to the skin of other fish or marine mammals. They drink the victims' blood or body fluids through the wound. Lampreys can be identified by the nine holes on each side of their head. Seven are used for breathing, the eighth one is an eye and the ninth one is a nostril.
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Prikken hebben een zuigmond met meerdere kransen met tanden. Daarmee bijten ze zich vast in de huid van andere vissen of van zeezoogdieren. Door de wond drinken ze bloed of lichaamssappen van hun slachtoffers. Toch hebben prikken hun naam niet te danken aan hun enge bek, maar aan de negen gaatjes aan de zijkant van hun kop. Zeven van deze gaatjes gebruiken ze om adem te halen. Het achtste gaatje is een oog en het negende is een neusopening.
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The approximately 40 species of eel-like fishes that comprise the family Petromyzontidae are known as lampreys and lack the jaws, scales, paired fins, and bone that are present in most of the vertebrates we know as "fishes". This is one of the two extant groups of jawless vertebrates (the other being the hagfishes, Myxini) (Janvier 2010 and references therein). Nearly all lamprey species are found outside the tropics in the northern hemisphere, but a few are in the southern hemisphere.
Most lampreys excavate pits in stream riffles (more rarely in wave-swept areas of lakes) to be used as spawning sites by moving stones with their suction-disc mouths and fanning out fine particles with body vibrations. Eggs hatch into blind larvae known as ammocoetes. Lampreys may live for 3 to 8 years (or even longer) as larvae, filtering microorganisms from the water in mud- or sand-bottomed pools, before metamorphosing into the radically different adult form. Adults of some parasitic species are anadramous, migrating to the ocean to feed, but returning to freshwater to spawn. Some other parasitic species are restricted to freshwater. Around half of the lamprey species are non-parasitic, feeding only as larvae and spawning the spring following metamorphosis. Parasitic lampreys typically feed by attaching to a large fish and rasping a hole in its side (some species feed predominantly on the blood of their hosts, whereas others ingest mainly flesh, and yet others feed on a combination of blood and flesh).
Adult lampreys have a skeleton made of cartilage rather than bone and an oral disc with rasping teeth on the tongue. The type and arrangement of teeth are important characters in distinguishing adult lampreys of different species (distinguishing ammocoetes of different species is often more difficult).
(Potter and Hilliard 1987, as cited in Gill et al. 2003; Page and Burr 2011)
Most lamprey genera include some closely related forms (sometimes treated as distinct species) with differing life history traits (e.g, parasitic and anadramous versus nonparasitic and freshwater resident, with the nonparasitic forms often reproducing at an earlier age and not feeding or growing after metamorphosis) (Espanhol et al. 2007)
According to Renaud (1997), of the 34 nominal lamprey species in the Northern Hemisphere ten are endangered, nine are vulnerable in at least part of their range, and one is extinct. The major threat is habitat degradation through pollution and stream regulation.
Renaud (2011) provides identification keys and reviews the biology of all 39 species that he recognizes.
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Source | No source database. |
Depth range based on 557 specimens in 31 taxa.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 223 samples.
Environmental ranges
Depth range (m): 0 - 2100
Temperature range (°C): -0.055 - 16.594
Nitrate (umol/L): 1.200 - 27.924
Salinity (PPS): 6.180 - 35.761
Oxygen (ml/l): 2.495 - 8.494
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.249 - 2.300
Silicate (umol/l): 2.111 - 43.852
Graphical representation
Depth range (m): 0 - 2100
Temperature range (°C): -0.055 - 16.594
Nitrate (umol/L): 1.200 - 27.924
Salinity (PPS): 6.180 - 35.761
Oxygen (ml/l): 2.495 - 8.494
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.249 - 2.300
Silicate (umol/l): 2.111 - 43.852
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.
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Tongue cuts through fish scales: lamprey
The tongue of a lamprey can cut through fish scales and skin due to its abrasiveness.
"The lamprey uses a sucker-like jawless mouth to cling to the trout, and has a vicious abrasive tongue with which to gorge a hole in its host's body. There it laps up the body fluids oozing from the wound." (Foy and Oxford Scientific Films 1982:50)
"In some respects, the mechanics of feeding have not been adequately explained, although the part played by the tongue is better understood. This structure is supported by a lingual cartilage, which can be moved slightly in a forward direction by paired basilariglossus muscles, originating in the basilaris and inserted on to the cartilage. The cutting lobes of the tongue are supported by an apical cartilage to which they are attached by tendons. Both Dawson (1905) and Lanzing (1959) agree that a rasping effect is largely responsible for the initial destruction of host tissue, through a rocking motion of the apical part of the tongue, produced by the protractor and retractor systems. In addition to this rasping effect, Lanzing considered that the retraction of the tongue brings together the longitudinal laminae in a scissors-like action which would be effective in cutting the host tissues." (Hardisty and Potter 1971:158)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Foy, Sally; Oxford Scientific Films. 1982. The Grand Design: Form and Colour in Animals. Lingfield, Surrey, U.K.: BLA Publishing Limited for J.M.Dent & Sons Ltd, Aldine House, London. 238 p.
- Hardisty MW; Potter IC. 1971. The biology of lampreys, Vol. 1. London: Academic Press. 423 p.
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Energy-efficient long distance swimming: eel
Eels and lampreys swim long distances but conserve energy by using a lateral wriggle.
"The most primitive and ancient method of locomotion among water dwellers was probably the lateral wriggle, whereby a wave travels from head to tail and increases in amplitude. Many primitive invertebrate swimmers use this kind of locomotion. In many aquatic animals (lampreys, eels), wriggling is aided by vertical stabilizer fins that extend the sides of the body and thus facilitate power transmission to the water. Cat sharks, some true sharks, lungfish, and sturgeon also swim with this lateral slithering motion. How efficient and energy-saving this method of locomotion is can best be seen by taking a look at the eels, which cover thousands of kilometers on their wanderings through the oceans. Slow-motion pictures of their movements disclose the principles of physics on which they are based. The essential prerequisite for getting ahead by wriggling through the water is for the body wave to travel rearward faster than the fish travels forward. The wriggling animal thereby exerts pressure on the water along the wave loops moving backward. While the laterally directed components cancel each other out over the entire fish, the forward- and backward-directed components add up to the propelling force." (Tributsch 1984:52)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Tributsch, H. 1984. How life learned to live. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 218 p.
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Suction used to attach to prey: lamprey
The jawless mouth of a lamprey attaches to prey using suction.
"The lamprey uses a sucker-like jawless mouth to cling to the trout, and has a vicious abrasive tongue with which to gorge a hole in its host's body. There it laps up the body fluids oozing from the wound." (Foy and Oxford Scientific Films 1982:50)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Foy, Sally; Oxford Scientific Films. 1982. The Grand Design: Form and Colour in Animals. Lingfield, Surrey, U.K.: BLA Publishing Limited for J.M.Dent & Sons Ltd, Aldine House, London. 238 p.
- Hardisty MW; Potter IC. 1971. The biology of lampreys, Vol. 1. London: Academic Press. 423 p.
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Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
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Adapting swimming technique: lamprey
Lampreys adjust their swimming motions as the current changes by using skin sensors.
"Leena Patel and her colleagues at the University of Edinburgh in the UK are using a genetic algorithm computer program, which mimics the way natural selection breeds fitter creatures, to improve the way their virtual lamprey swims in different sea conditions. They want to use these swimming motions to boost the efficiency of a novel type of wave-power device - a long, thin, eel-like machine called the Pelamis. However, oscillating machines like this cannot adapt when the wave speed changes. To overcome this, she turned to the lamprey, which uses skin sensors to adjust its swimming motion as the current changes. Lampreys have a cluster of neurons in their spinal cord called a central pattern generator (CPG), which produce signals that drive the muscles to contract rhythmically and make them swim." (Courtesy of the Biomimicry Guild)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Patel, L.N.; Murray, A.; Hallam, J. 2007. Super-lampreys and wave energy: Optimised control of artificially-evolved, simulated swimming lamprey. Neurocomputing. 70(7-9): 1139-1154.
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