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Species
Hedera
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Hedera, commonly called ivy (plural ivies), is a genus of 12–15 species of evergreen climbing or ground-creeping woody plants in the family Araliaceae, native to western, central and southern Europe, Macaronesia, northwestern Africa and across central-southern Asia east to Japan and Taiwan.
Contents
§Description[edit]
On level ground they remain creeping, not exceeding 5–20 cm height, but on suitable surfaces for climbing, including trees, natural rock outcrops or man-made structures such as quarry rock faces or built masonry and wooden structures, they can climb to at least 30 m above the ground. Ivies have two leaf types, with palmately lobed juvenile leaves on creeping and climbing stems and unlobed cordate adult leaves on fertile flowering stems exposed to full sun, usually high in the crowns of trees or the tops of rock faces, from 2 m or more above ground. The juvenile and adult shoots also differ, the former being slender, flexible and scrambling or climbing with small aerial roots to affix the shoot to the substrate (rock or tree bark), the latter thicker, self-supporting and without roots. The flowers are greenish-yellow with five small petals; they are produced in umbels in autumn to early winter and are very rich in nectar. The fruit is a greenish-black, dark purple or (rarely) yellow berry 5–10 mm diameter with one to five seeds, ripening in late winter to mid-spring. The seeds are dispersed by birds which eat the berries.
The species differ in detail of the leaf shape and size (particularly of the juvenile leaves) and in the structure of the leaf trichomes, and also in the size and, to a lesser extent, the colour of the flowers and fruit. The chromosome number also differs between species. The basic diploid number is 48, while some are tetraploid with 96, and others hexaploid with 144 and octaploid with 192 chromosomes.[2]
§Ecology[edit]
Ivies are natives of Eurasia and North Africa but have been introduced to North America and Australia. They invade disturbed forest areas in North America and in Europe.[3] Ivy seeds are spread by birds.[3]
Ivies are of major ecological importance for their nectar and fruit production, both produced at times of the year when few other nectar or fruit sources are available.[4] The Ivy Bee Colletes hederae is completely dependent on ivy flowers, timing its entire life cycle around ivy flowering.[5] The fruit are eaten by a range of birds, including thrushes, blackcaps, and woodpigeons.[4] The leaves are eaten by the larvae of some species of Lepidoptera such as Angle Shades, Lesser Broad-bordered Yellow Underwing, Scalloped Hazel, Small Angle Shades, Small Dusty Wave (which feeds exclusively on ivy), Swallow-tailed Moth and Willow Beauty.
§Taxonomy[edit]
The following species are widely accepted; they are divided into two main groups, depending on whether they have scale-like or stellate trichomes on the undersides of the leaves:[2][6][7]
- Trichomes scale-like
- Hedera algeriensis Hibberd – Algerian ivy. Algeria, Tunisia (Mediterranean coast).
- Hedera canariensis Willd. – Canaries ivy. Canary Islands.
- Hedera colchica (K.Koch) K.Koch – Persian ivy. Alborz, Caucasus, Turkey.
- Hedera cypria McAllister – Cyprus ivy (syn. H. pastuchovii subsp. cypria (McAll.) Hand). Cyprus (Troodos Mts.)
- Hedera iberica (McAllister) Ackerfield & J.Wen – Iberian ivy. SW Iberian coasts.
- Hedera maderensis – Madeiran ivy. Madeira.
- Hedera maroccana McAllister – Moroccan ivy. Morocco.
- Hedera nepalensis K.Koch – Himalayan ivy (syn. H. sinensis (Tobl.) Hand.-Mazz.). Himalaya, SW China.
- Hedera pastuchowii G.Woronow – Pastuchov's ivy. Caucasus, Alborz.
- Hedera rhombea (Miq.) Siebold ex Bean – Japanese ivy. Japan, Korea, Taiwan.
- Trichomes stellate
- Hedera azorica Carrière – Azores ivy. Azores.
- Hedera helix L. – Common ivy (syn. H. caucasigena Pojark., H. taurica (Hibberd) Carrière). Europe, widespread.
- Hedera hibernica (G.Kirchn.) Bean – Atlantic ivy (syn. H. helix subsp. hibernica (G.Kirchn.) D.C.McClint.). Atlantic western Europe.
The species of ivy are largely allopatric and closely related, and many have on occasion been treated as varieties or subspecies of H. helix, the first species described. Several additional species have been described in the southern parts of the former Soviet Union, but are not regarded as distinct by most botanists.
The only verified hybrid involving ivies is the intergeneric hybrid × Fatshedera lizei, a cross between Fatsia japonica and Hedera hibernica. This hybrid was produced once in a garden in France in 1910 and never successfully repeated, the hybrid being maintained in cultivation by vegetative propagation.[8][9] Despite the close relationship between Hedera helix and H. hibernica (until relatively recently considered conspecific), no hybrids between them have yet been found.[10] Hybridisation may however have played a part in the evolution of some species in the genus.[2]
§Uses and cultivation[edit]
Ivies are very popular in cultivation within their native range and compatible climates elsewhere, for their evergreen foliage, attracting wildlife, and for adaptable design uses in narrow planting spaces and on tall or wide walls for aesthetic addition, or to hide unsightly walls, fences and tree stumps. Numerous cultivars with variegated foliage and/or unusual leaf shapes have been selected for horticultural use.[8]
§Problems and dangers[edit]
§On trees[edit]
Much discussion has involved whether or not ivy climbing trees will harm them. In Europe the harm is generally not significant although there can be competition for soil nutrients, light, and water, and senescent trees supporting heavy ivy growth can be liable to windthrow damage.[4] Harm and problems are more significant in North America, where ivy is without the natural pests and diseases that control its vigour in its native continents; the photosynthesis or structural strength of a tree can be overwhelmed by aggressive ivy growth leading to death directly or by opportunistic disease and insect attacks caused by weakness from the duress.[citation needed]
§Invasive exotic[edit]
Several ivy species have become a serious invasive species (invasive exotic) in natural native plant habitats, especially riparian and woodland types, and also a horticultural weed in gardens of the western and southern regions of North America with milder winters. Ivies create a dense, vigorously smothering, shade-tolerant evergreen groundcover that can spread through assertive underground rhizomes and above-ground runners quickly over large natural plant community areas and outcompete the native vegetation. The use of ivies as ornamental plants in horticulture in California and other states is now discouraged or banned in certain jurisdictions.[11] Similar problems exist in Australia. For example, in both countries the North African drought-tolerant H. canariensis and H. algeriensis and European H. helix were originally cultivated in garden, park, and highway landscaping, but they have become aggressively invasive in coastal forests and riparian ecosystems, now necessitating costly eradication programs.[12]
§Toxicity[edit]
The berries are moderately toxic to humans, but are very bitter, so poisoning is rare. Ivy foliage contains triterpenoid saponins and falcarinol, a polyyne; falcarinol is capable of inducing an allergic reaction (contact dermatitis) in some people. People who have this allergy (strictly a Type IV hypersensitivity) are also likely to react to carrots and other members of the Apiaceae as they also contain falcarinol. It has also been shown to kill breast cancer cells.[13]
§Etymology and other names[edit]
The name ivy derives from Old English ifig, cognate with German Efeu, of unknown original meaning.[14] The scientific name Hedera is the classical Latin name for the plant.[8] Old regional common names in Britain, no longer used, include "Bindwood" and "Lovestone", for the way it clings and grows over stones and bricks. US Pacific Coast regional common names for H. canariensis include "California ivy" and "Algerian ivy"; for H. helix, regional common names include the generic "English ivy".
The name ivy has also been used as a common name for a number of other unrelated plants, including Boston ivy (Japanese Creeper Parthenocissus tricuspidata, in the family Vitaceae), Cape-ivy or German-ivy (Delairea odorata in the family Asteraceae), poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans in the family Anacardiaceae), and Swedish ivy (Whorled Plectranthus Plectranthus verticillatus, in the family Lamiaceae).
§Gallery[edit]
§See also[edit]
§References[edit]
- ^ "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families". Retrieved June 11, 2014.
- ^ a b c Ackerfield, J, & Wen, J. (2002). A morphometric analysis of Hedera L. (the ivy genus, Araliaceae) and its taxonomic implications. Adansonia sér. 3, 24: 197-212. Full text.
- ^ a b Ingham, C.S.; Borman, M.M. (2010). "English Ivy (Hedera spp., Araliaceae) Response to Goat Browsing". Invasive Plant Science and Management 3 (2): 178–181. doi:10.1614/ipsm-09-021.1.
- ^ a b c Mitchell, A. F. (1975). "Three Forest Climbers: Ivy, Old Man's Beard and Honeysuckle". Forest Record 102.
- ^ Hymettus — BWARS Information Sheet: Ivy Bee (Colletes hederae)
- ^ McAllister, H. (1982). New work on ivies Int. Dendrol. Soc. Yearbook 1981: 106–109.
- ^ Germplasm Resources Information Network Species Records of Hedera
- ^ a b c Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening 2: 60. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
- ^ Metcalfe, D. J. (2005). Biological Flora of the British Isles no. 268 Hedera helix L. Journal of Ecology 93: 632–648.
- ^ McAllister, H.A., & Rutherford, A. (1990). Hedera helix L. and H. hibernica (Kirchner) Bean (Araliaceae) in the British Isles. Watsonia 18: 7-15. Full text.
- ^ "Criteria for Categorizing Invasive Non-native Plants that Threaten Wildlands". Cal-IPC. 2003-02-28. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
- ^ "California Invasive Plant Council Interactive Database.". Cal-IPC. Retrieved 2014-05-27.
- ^ M. Kobæk-Larsen, L. P. Christensen, W. Vach, J. Ritskes-Hoitinga and K. Brandt (2005). "Inhibitory Effects of Feeding with Carrots or (-)-Falcarinol on Development of Azoxymethane-Induced Preneoplastic Lesions in the Rat Colon". Journal of Acricultural and Food Chemistry 53 (5): 1823–1827. doi:10.1021/jf048519s. PMID 15740080.
- ^ The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology
§External links[edit]
- Kew plant profiles: Hedera helix (common ivy)
- Hutchison, Peter (14 May 2010). "Ivy is good for walls, finds Oxford University study". The Telegraph. Telegraph. Retrieved 13 March 2014.
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Foodplant / saprobe
effuse or discrete colony of Anungitea dematiaceous anamorph of Anungitea fragilis is saprobic on dead litter of Hedera
Remarks: season: 5-9
Foodplant / saprobe
hypostromatic hysterothecium of Aulographum hederae is saprobic on dead, fallen leaf of Hedera
Remarks: season: 1-7
In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Auricularia auricula-judae is saprobic on wood of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Byssomerulius corium is saprobic on fallen, decayed wood of Hedera
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / spinner
caterpillar of Cacoecimorpha pronubana spins live leaf of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
Cylindrocladium anamorph of Calonectria pyrochroa is saprobic on stem of Hedera
Plant / associate
stroma of Capronia nigerrima is associated with fungus-infected wood of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-4
Plant / associate
subiculate perithecium of Chaetosphaerella phaeostroma is associated with fungus infected, fallen branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-4
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Catenularia dematiaceous anamorph of Chaetosphaeria cupulifera is saprobic on fallen, dead branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 12-6
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Menispora dematiaceous anamorph of Chaetosphaeria pulviscula is saprobic on dead, often rotten wood of Hedera
Remarks: season: 10-4
Foodplant / saprobe
acervulus of Cheirospora coelomycetous anamorph of Cheirospora botryospora is saprobic on dead twig of Hedera
Remarks: season: 3-9
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / sap sucker
hypophyllous Coccus hesperidum sucks sap of live leaf (near veins) of Hedera
Remarks: season: 1-12
Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, numerous, gregarious pycnidium of Coleophoma coelomycetous anamorph of Coleophoma cylindrospora is saprobic on dead leaf of Hedera
Remarks: season: 4-5
Foodplant / spot causer
acervulus of Colletotrichum coelomycetous anamorph of Colletotrichum helicis causes spots on live leaf of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
velvety or spongy colony of Corynespora dematiaceous anamorph of Corynespora smithii is saprobic on dead bark of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-6
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Crepidotus cesatii is saprobic on decayed, dead twig of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
sporodochium of Cryptocoryneum dematiaceous anamorph of Cryptocoryneum condensatum is saprobic on dead bark of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
gregarious, covered then erumpent stroma of Cytospora coelomycetous anamorph of Cytospora foliicola is saprobic on dead leaf of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, often loosely grouped perithecium of Diaporthe eres is saprobic on wood of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, stromatic perithecium of Diaporthe hederae is saprobic on dead, decorticate, locally blackened twig of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-7
Foodplant / saprobe
immersed perithecium of Diaporthe pulla is saprobic on dead, corticate wood of Hedera
Remarks: season: 12-8
Foodplant / saprobe
stromatic, immersed perithecium of Eutypa lata is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Geastrum coronatum is associated with Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
hysterothecium of Gloniopsis praelonga is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 1-12
Foodplant / saprobe
often in concentric rings, sometimes stromatic pycnidium of Dothiorella coelomycetous anamorph of Guignardia philoprina is saprobic on dead leaf of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Helminthosporium dematiaceous anamorph of Helminthosporium velutinum is saprobic on fallen, dead branch of Hedera
Plant / associate
effuse colony of Heteroconium anamorph of Heteroconium tetracoilum is associated with damp, rotten branch of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
conidioma of Leptothyrina coelomycetous anamorph of Hypoderma hederae is saprobic on dead, locally bleached leaf of Hedera
Remarks: season: 10-4
Foodplant / saprobe
scattered or gregarious, inconspicuous, more or less superficial hysterothecium of Hysterium pulicare is saprobic on bark of Hedera
Remarks: season: 3-5
Foodplant / saprobe
somewhat short-stalked apothecium of Lachnum corticale is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 3-12
Foodplant / saprobe
superficial perithecium of Lasiosphaeria hirsuta is saprobic on old wood of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-4
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Lepiota coxheadii is associated with Hedera
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Limacella delicata var. vinosorubescens is associated with Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
usually immersed pseudothecium of Lophiostoma compressum is saprobic on decorticate wood of Hedera
Remarks: season: 10-2
Foodplant / saprobe
subcuticular, becoming erumpent apothecium of Lophodermium hedericola is saprobic on dead, locally bleached leaf of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-4
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Marasmiellus candidus is saprobic on dead stem (woody) of Hedera
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Marasmius corbariensis is associated with dead, fallen leaf of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
pycnidium of Aposphaeria coelomycetous anamorph of Melanomma fuscidulum is saprobic on fallen, dead branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 3-5
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Gonytrichum dematiaceous anamorph of Melanopsammella inaequalis is saprobic on fallen, dead branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 1-12
Foodplant / saprobe
immersed or erumpent perithecium of Melomastia mastoidea is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Menispora dematiaceous anamorph of Menispora ciliata is saprobic on dead wood of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, becoming erumpent pycnidium of Microsphaeropsis coelomycetous anamorph of Microsphaeropsis olivacea is saprobic on branch of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
superficial mycelium of Microthyrium ciliatum var. hederae is saprobic on dead, decaying leaf of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-5
Foodplant / saprobe
mostly epiphyllous thyriothecium of Microthyrium microscopicum is saprobic on dead, fallen, rotting leaf of Hedera
Remarks: season: 1-12
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Mycena capillaris is saprobic on dead, decayed, drifted leaf of Hedera
Other: unusual host/prey
Foodplant / spot causer
epiphyllous, gregarious, opaque then black pycnidium of Septoria coelomycetous anamorph of Mycosphaerella hedericola causes spots on live leaf of Hedera
Remarks: season: 4-11
Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent stroma of Nectria coccinea is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-5
Plant / associate
perithecium of Nectria episphaeria is associated with pyrenomycete infection Hedera
Remarks: season: 3-5
Foodplant / saprobe
anamorph of Nectria hederae is saprobic on stem (cut end) of Hedera
Remarks: season: 12-1
Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent stroma of Nectria sinopica is saprobic on dead wood of Hedera
Remarks: season: 8-3
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Geniculosporium dematiaceous anamorph of Nemania serpens is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Oncopodiella dematiaceous anamorph of Oncopodiella trigonella is saprobic on rotten wood of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Orbilia curvatispora is saprobic on fallen branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 1-12
Foodplant / saprobe
resupinate fruitbody of Peniophora cinerea is saprobic on dead wood of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Peniophora incarnata is saprobic on dead, attached branch (small) of Hedera
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Peniophora lycii is saprobic on dead, fallen stick of Hedera
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Peniophora violaceolivida is saprobic on dead bark of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phanerochaete martelliana is saprobic on dead, decayed stem (woody) of Hedera
Foodplant / internal feeder
Phloeophagus lignarius feeds within dead branch of Hedera
Foodplant / spot causer
epiphyllous pycnidium of Phoma coelomycetous anamorph of Phoma hedericola causes spots on live leaf of Hedera
Remarks: season: 1-12
Foodplant / feeds on
Phytonemus pallidus feeds on live Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Proliferodiscus pulveraceus is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 6-9
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Pseudospiropes dematiaceous anamorph of Pseudospiropes obclavatus is saprobic on fallen branch of Hedera
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Ramariopsis pulchella is associated with Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
superficial, scattered, scattered perithecium of Rosellinia mammiformis is saprobic on dead, fallen branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 5-9
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
superficial, sessile apothecium of Skyathea hederae is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Sporidesmium dematiaceous anamorph of Sporidesmium altum is saprobic on bark of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-5
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Sporidesmium dematiaceous anamorph of Sporidesmium cookei is saprobic on wood or bark of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-5
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Sporidesmium dematiaceous anamorph of Sporidesmium folliculatum is saprobic on fallen branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 3-11
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Sporidesmium dematiaceous anamorph of Sporidesmium goidanichii is saprobic on dead leaf of Hedera
Plant / associate
effuse colony of Sporidesmium dematiaceous anamorph of Sporidesmium socium is associated with dead wood of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Sporoschisma dematiaceous anamorph of Sporoschisma juvenile is saprobic on bark of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
deeply sunken apothecium of Stictis radiata is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Remarks: season: 1-12
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Pseudospiropes dematiaceous anamorph of Strossmayeria atriseda is saprobic on dead bark of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Pseudospiropes dematiaceous anamorph of Strossmayeria basitricha is saprobic on dead branch of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Stypella dubia is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Hedera
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Terana caerulea is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Hedera
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
dimorphic conidioma of Ceuthospora coelomycetous anamorph of Trochila craterium is saprobic on dead petiole of Hedera
Remarks: season: 9-10
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Tubulicrinis subulatus is saprobic on dead, decayed stem of Hedera
Other: unusual host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
erect stroma of Xylaria hypoxylon is saprobic on old stump of Hedera
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Xylohypha dematiaceous anamorph of Xylohypha nigrescens is saprobic on wood of Hedera
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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) Stats
Specimen Records:105
Specimens with Sequences:145
Specimens with Barcodes:112
Species:10
Species With Barcodes:10
Public Records:74
Public Species:9
Public BINs:0