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Species
Cynodon
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The fossil record of bears in North America and Eurasia extends to the earlyl Miocene. It is thought that bears reached Africa in the late Miocene and South America in the early Pleistocene.
- McKenna, M., S. Bell. 1997. Classification of Mammals Above the Species Level. New York: Columbia University Press.
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Cynodon is a genus of dogtooth characins from tropical South America.[1]
Species[edit]
There are currently three described species in this genus.
- Cynodon gibbus (Agassiz, 1829)
- Cynodon meionactis (Géry, Le Bail & Keith, 1999)
- Cynodon septenarius (Toledo-Piza, 2000)
References[edit]
- ^ Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2011). Species of Cynodon in FishBase. October 2011 version.
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Vision and hearing in bears is not well-developed, but they have a keen sense of smell and use their sensitive lips to locate and maneuver food. Ursus americanus has color vision and has been demonstrated using vision to distinguish food items at close range. Little is known about communication in bears, but grunts, moans, and roars are known from most species. Cubs may be especially vocal, uttering "woofs" and shrill howls when distressed. "Chuffing" is used as a greeting in Ursus arctos. Chemical cues may be used by males in locating receptive females. Home range boundaries, individual identity, and sexual condition may be advertised, both visually and chemically, by tree-scratching and by urinating and defecating on boundary trails.
Communication Channels: acoustic ; chemical
Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
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Perennials, usually rhizomatous and/or stoloniferous and sward-forming. Inflorescence of digitate 1-sided racemes, sometimes borne in 2 or more closely-spaced whorls. Spikelets borne on a flat or semi-terete (crescent-shaped in section) rhachis. Spikelets 1-flowered, with or without a rhachilla-extension, sessile, laterally flattened, alternate in 2 rows, tardily disarticulating above the glumes. Glumes subequal, membranous, 1-nerved, shorter than the floret. Lemma membranous, keeled, acute or emarginate, awnless.
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Rights holder/Author | Mark Hyde, Bart Wursten, Petra Ballings, Flora of Zimbabwe |
Source | http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/genus.php?genus_id=182 |
Bears are long-lived if they survive their first few years of life. Most mortality occurs in young cubs or dispersing juveniles as a result of food stress. Pre-weaning cub mortality was estimated at 10-30% in polar bears and sub-adult mortality at between 3 and 16%. In American black bears in Alaska, sub-adult mortality was estimated at 52 to 86%. Estimates of longevity in the wild are as high as 25 years. Captive animals have been known to live to 50 years or more (Ursus arctos).
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Cynodon is a genus of plants in the grass family.[2] It is native to warm temperate to tropical regions of the Old World, as well as being cultivated and naturalized in the New World and on many oceanic islands.
The genus name comes from Greek words meaning "Dog-tooth". The genus as a whole as well as its species are commonly known as Bermuda Grass or Dog's Tooth Grass.
- Cynodon aethiopicus - Africa; introduced in South Africa, Queensland, Hawaii, Texas
- Cynodon barberi - India, Sri Lanka
- Cynodon coursii - Madagascar
- Cynodon dactylon - Old World; introduced in New World and on various islands
- Cynodon incompletus - southern Africa; introduced in Australia, Argentina
- Cynodon × magennisii - Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga; introduced in Texas, Alabama
- Cynodon nlemfuensis - Africa from Ethiopia to Zimbabwe; introduced in South Africa, West Africa, Saudi Arabia, Philippines, Texas, Florida, Mesoamerica, northern South America, various islands
- Cynodon plectostachyus - Chad, East Africa; introduced in Madagascar, Bangladesh, Mexico, West Indies, Paraguay, northeastern Argentina, Texas, California
- Cynodon radiatus - China, Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Madagascar; introduced in Australia, New Guinea
- Cynodon transvaalensis - South Africa, Lesotho; introduced in other parts of Africa plus in scattered locales in Iran, Australia, and the Americas
- formerly included[1]
several species now considered better suited to other genera: Arundo Bouteloua Brachyachne Chloris Cortaderia Ctenium Digitaria Diplachne Eleusine Enteropogon Eragrostis Eustachys Gynerium Leptochloa Molinia Muhlenbergia Phragmites Poa Spartina Tridens Trigonochloa
- Cynodon abyssinicus - Eragrostis tef
- Cynodon altior - Brachyachne tenella
- Cynodon amabilis - Eragrostis amabilis
- Cynodon americanus - Bouteloua americana
- Cynodon brizoides - Eragrostis capensis
- Cynodon caeruleus - Molinia caerulea
- Cynodon carolinianus - Tridens flavus
- Cynodon ciliaris - Brachyachne ciliaris
- Cynodon convergens - Brachyachne convergens
- Cynodon coracanus - Eleusine coracana
- Cynodon cruciatus - Chloris cruciata
- Cynodon curtipendulus - Bouteloua curtipendula
- Cynodon cynosuroides - Spartina cynosuroides
- Cynodon diffusus - Muhlenbergia schreberi
- Cynodon domingensis - Leptochloa virgata
- Cynodon donax - Arundo donax
- Cynodon elongatus - Enteropogon dolichostachyus
- Cynodon fascicularis - Diplachne fusca subsp. fascicularis
- Cynodon filiformis - Leptochloa panicea
- Cynodon gracilis - Trigonochloa uniflora
- Cynodon gynerium - Gynerium sagittatum
- Cynodon indicus - Eleusine indica
- Cynodon junceus - Bouteloua juncea
- Cynodon melicoides - Bouteloua curtipendula
- Cynodon monostachyus - Ctenium aromaticum
- Cynodon neesii - Leptochloa neesii
- Cynodon petitii - Phragmites australis subsp. isiacus
- Cynodon phragmites - Phragmites australis
- Cynodon pilosissimus - Cortaderia pilosa
- Cynodon pilosus - Digitaria stricta
- Cynodon polystachyus - Leptochloa neesii
- Cynodon praecox - Digitaria sanguinalis
- Cynodon procumbens - Chondrosum simplex
- Cynodon pungens - Spartina maritima
- Cynodon setigerus - Digitaria setigera
- Cynodon sudeticus - Poa chaixii
- Cynodon tenellus - Brachyachne tenella
- Cynodon tener - Eustachys tenera
- Cynodon ternatus - Digitaria ternata
- Cynodon virgatus Willd. - Leptochloa chinensis
- Cynodon virgatus (L.) Raspail - Leptochloa virgata
- Cynodon virgatus Nees ex Steud. - Leptochloa neesii
Cultivation and uses[edit]
Some species, most commonly C. dactylon, are grown as lawn grasses in warm temperate regions, such as the Sunbelt area of the United States where they are valued for their drought tolerance compared to most other lawn grasses. Propagation is by rhizomes, stolons, or seeds. In some cases it is considered to be a weed; it spreads through lawns and flower beds, where it can be difficult to kill with herbicides without damaging other grasses or plants. It is difficult to pull out because the rhizomes and stolons break readily, and then re-grow.
It is also noted for its common use on the surface of greens on golf courses, as well as football and baseball playing fields.
Recent news reports claim that a Bermuda-derived F1 hybrid called Tifton 85 suddenly started producing cyanide and killed a cattle herd in Texas, USA.[5][6][7]
References[edit]
- ^ a b c Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
- ^ Richard, Louis Claude Marie, in Persoon, Christiaan Hendrik. 1805. Synopsis Plantarum 1: 85
- ^ The Plant List search for Cynodon
- ^ Biota of North America Program 2013 county distribution maps
- ^ CBS News (June 23, 2012). "Grass linked to Texas cattle deaths". CBS News. Retrieved June 24, 2012.
- ^ Glenn W. Burton, Roger N. Gates, and Gary M. Hill. "TIFTON 85 BERMUDAGRASS". University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. Retrieved June 24, 2012.
- ^ T.L. Provin and J.L. Pitt. "Nitrates and Prussic Acid in Forages". Texas A&M University System. Retrieved June 24, 2012.
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Male and female bears generally associate only briefly for mating. Males monitor the estrus condition of females in their home range and will remain close for a few days when females are receptive. Multiple mating is practiced by both sexes.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Bears give birth to 1 to 4 young, usually 2, at intervals of 1 to 4 years. There is evidence of delayed implantation in all species. Gestation lengths ranging from 95 to 266 days, with implantation being delayed from 45 to 120 days. Actual gestation lengths may be closer to 60 to 70 days. Births in temperate species occur during the winter when the female is dormant. The cubs nurse during the dormant period and the entire metabolic demands of the female must be met by her fat reserves. Births in Helarctos malayanus may occur at any time of the year. Sexual maturity occurs at from to 3 to 6.5 years old, usually occurring later in males. Growth continues after sexual maturity. Males may not reach their adult size until 10-11 years old. Females reach adult sizes usually around 5 years old.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous ; delayed implantation
Females give birth to their young in protected areas, often a den of some kind, until they are capable of getting around well, at several months of age. Bears are very small when born, from 90 (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) to 680 (Ursus arctos) grams at birth. They are born with their eyes and ears closed and are either naked or with only a fine layer of fur. Cubs grow rapidly, polar bears go from 600 grams at birth to 10 to 15 kg within 4 months. Weaning occurs from 3.5 (Ursus thibetanus) to 9 (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) months. Young stay with their mother for up to 3 years, but young of most species disperse after 18 to 24 months. Females are very protective of their young and it is likely that cubs learn about obtaining food and shelter during their extended juvenile time with their mother.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); extended period of juvenile learning
- Nowak, R. 1991. Walker's Mammals of the World, Fifth Edition. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Chorn, J., R. Hoffman. 1978. Ailuropoda melanoleuca. Mammalian Species, 110: 1-6.
- Vaughan, T., J. Ryan, N. Czaplewski. 2000. Mammalogy, 4th edition. New York: Saunders College Publishing.
- DeMaster, D., I. Stirling. 1981. Ursus maritimus. Mammalian Species, 145: 1-7.
- Pasitchniak-Arts, M. 1993. Ursus arctos. Mammalian Species, 439: 1-10.
- Lariviere, S. 2001. Ursus americanus. Mammalian Species, 647: 1-11.
- Fitzgerald, C., P. Krausman. 2002. Helarctos malayanus. Mammalian Species, 696: 1-5.
- Rogers, L. 1999. American black bear. Pp. 157-160 in D Wilson, S Ruff, eds. The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals. Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution Press.
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Syntype for Cynodon bradleyi Stent
Catalog Number: US 1504350
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany
Verification Degree: Card file verified by examination of alleged type specimen
Preparation: Pressed specimen
Collector(s): S. Stent
Year Collected: 1926
Locality: Orange Grove, Johannesburg., Transvaal, South Africa, Africa
- Syntype: Stent, S. M. 1927. Bothalia. 2: 277.
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Source | http://collections.mnh.si.edu/search/botany/?irn=2124555 |
Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) Stats
Specimen Records:396
Specimens with Sequences:506
Specimens with Barcodes:307
Species:13
Species With Barcodes:12
Public Records:251
Public Species:12
Public BINs:10
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Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
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