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Species
Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi
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Schinus terebinthifolius is a species of flowering plant in the cashew family, Anacardiaceae, that is native to subtropical and tropical South America (southeastern Brazil, northern Argentina and Paraguay). It is found in the following states of Brazil: Alagoas, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Pernambuco, Paraná, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, São Paulo and Sergipe. Common names include Brazilian pepper, aroeira, rose pepper, and Christmasberry.[2]
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Description[edit]
Brazilian pepper is a sprawling shrub or small tree, with a shallow root system, reaching a height of 7–10 m. The branches can be upright, reclining, or nearly vine-like, all on the same plant. Its plastic morphology allows it to thrive in all kinds of ecosystems: from dunes to swamps, where it grows as a quasi-aquatic plant.[3] The leaves are alternate, 10–22 cm long, pinnately compound with (3–) 5–15 leaflets; the leaflets are roughly oval (lanceolate to elliptical), 3–6 cm long and 2–3.5 cm broad, and have finely toothed margins, an acute to rounded apex and yellowish veins. The leaf rachis between the leaflets is usually (but not invariably) slightly winged. The plant is dioecious, with small white flowers borne profusely in axillary clusters. The fruit is a small red spherical drupe 4–5 mm diameter, carried in dense clusters of hundreds of berries.
There are two varieties:
- S. terebinthifolius var. acutifolius. Leaves to 22 cm, with 7–15 leaflets; fruit pink.
- S. terebinthifolius var. terebinthifolius. Leaves to 17 cm, with 5–13 leaflets; fruit red.
Cultivation and uses[edit]
Brazilian pepper is widely grown as an ornamental plant in frost-free regions of South America for its foliage and fruit. It is considered as a melliferous flower.[4]
Although it is not a true pepper (Piper), its dried drupes are often sold as pink peppercorns, as are the fruits from the related species Schinus molle (Peruvian peppertree). The seeds can be used as a spice, adding a pepper-like taste to food. They are usually sold in a dry state and have a bright pink color. They are less often sold pickled in brine, where they have a dull, almost green hue.
In the United States, it has been introduced to California, Texas, Hawaii, Arizona, Nevada, Louisiana[5] and Florida. Planted originally as an ornamental outside of its native range, Brazilian pepper has become widespread and is considered an invasive species in many subtropical regions with moderate to high rainfall, including parts or all of Australia, the Bahamas, Bermuda, southern China, Cuba, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Mauritius, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, Puerto Rico, Réunion, South Africa, and the United States. In drier areas, such as Israel and southern California, it is also grown but has not generally proved invasive. In California, it is considered invasive in coastal regions by the California Invasive Plant Council (www.cal-ipc.org.)
Brazilian pepper is hard to control because it produces basal shoots if the trunk is cut. Trees also produce abundant seeds that are dispersed by birds and ants. It is this same hardiness that makes the tree highly useful for reforestation in its native environment but which enables it to become invasive outside of its natural range.[6]
Toxicity[edit]
Like many other species in the family Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper has an aromatic sap that can cause skin reactions (similar to poison ivy burns) in some sensitive people – although the reaction is usually weaker than that induced by touch of the closely related Lithraea molleoides, known as Brazil as "wild" aroeira (aroeira brava). Conversely, Schinus terebinthifolius is commonly known as "tame" aroeira (aroeira mansa).
It is noted in a paper on triterpenes that the ingested fruits have a “paralyzing effect” on birds.[7] The narcotic and toxic effects on birds and other wildlife has also been noted by others, e.g., Bureau of Aquatic Plant Management. The AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants reports that the tripterpenes found in the fruits can result in irritation of the throat, gastroenteritis,diarrhea, and vomiting in man.[8] Like most other members of the Anacardiaceae, Brazilian pepper contains active alkenyl phenols, e.g., urushiol, cardol, which can cause contact dermatitis and inflammation in sensitive individuals.[9][10] Contact with the “sap” from a cut or bruised tree can result in rash, lesions, oozing sores, severe itching,reddening and swelling (especially of the eyes), and welts.[11]
The burning of plant matter releases many airborne irritants and therefore is not an effective means of control. It is said to have a "mace-like" effect upon nearby people and is highly advised against.
History[edit]
"Florida Holly" was introduced to Florida by at latest 1891, probably earlier (Gogue et al. 1974), where it has spread rapidly since about 1940 (Ewel 1986), replacing native plants, like mangroves, with thousands of acres occupied. It is especially adept at colonizing disturbed sites and can grow in both wet and dry conditions. Its growth habit allows it to climb over understory trees and invade mature canopies, forming thickets that choke out most other plants.
Legal status[edit]
The species, including the seed, is legally prohibited from sale, transport, or planting in Florida, according to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Noxious Weed List (F.A.C. 5B-57.007).[12] It is classified as a Category I pest by The Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FL EPPC).[13] To keep the plant from spreading into native plant communities and displacing them, local regulations and environmental guidelines require eradication of Brazilian pepper wherever possible. The plant and all parts are also illegal for sale or transfer in Texas.[14]
It is a declared weed in several states of Australia.[15][16][17] In South Africa it is classified as a Category 1 invader in KwaZulu-Natal province, where any plants are to be removed and destroyed, and a Category 3 invader in all other provinces, meaning it may no longer be planted.[18]
Control[edit]
Two herbicides are approved for use in the United States to exterminate Brazilian pepper: Triclopyr, using the basal bark method; and Glyphosate. Picloram can be used if the stump has been freshly cut, but this is not the preferred nor most effective means of eradication.
Medicinal Uses[edit]
Virtually all parts of this tropical tree, including its leaves, bark, fruit, seeds, resin, and oleoresin (or balsam) have been used medicinally by indigenous peoples throughout the tropics. The plant has a very long history of use and appears in ancient religious artifacts and on idols among some of the ancient Chilean Amerindians.
Throughout South and Central America, Brazilian peppertree is reported to be an astringent, antibacterial, diuretic, digestive stimulant, tonic, antiviral, and wound healer. In Peru, the sap is used as a mild laxative and a diuretic, and the entire plant is used externally for fractures and as a topical antiseptic. The oleoresin is used externally as a wound healer, to stop bleeding, and for toothaches, and it is taken internally for rheumatism and as a purgative. In South Africa, a leaf tea is used to treat colds, and a leaf decoction is inhaled for colds, hypertension, depression, and irregular heart beat. In the Brazilian Amazon, a bark tea is used as a laxative, and a bark-and-leaf tea is used as a stimulant and antidepressant. In Argentina, a decoction is made with the dried leaves and is taken for menstrual disorders and is also used for respiratory and urinary tract infections and disorders.
Brazilian peppertree is still employed in herbal medicine today in many countries. It is used for many conditions in the tropics, including menstrual disorders, bronchitis, gingivitis, gonorrhea, gout, eye infections, rheumatism, sores, swellings, tuberculosis, ulcers, urethritis, urogenital disorders, venereal diseases, warts, and wounds. In Brazilian herbal medicine today, the dried bark and/or leaves are employed for heart problems (hypertension and irregular heart beat), infections of all sorts, menstrual disorders with excessive bleeding, tumors, and general inflammation. A liquid extract or tincture prepared with the bark is used internally as a stimulant, tonic, and astringent, and externally for rheumatism, gout, and syphilis. [19]
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ "Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2009-03-30. Retrieved 2009-12-30.
- ^ (Portuguese) Schinus terebinthifolius at Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Florestais
- ^ Paulo Backes & Bruno Irgang, Mata Atlântica: as árvores e a paisagem, Porto Alegre, Paisagem do Sul, 2004, page 102
- ^ Paulo Backes & Bruno Irgang, ibid.
- ^ "Schinus terebinthifolius; Element stewardship abstract".
- ^ Backes & Irgang, op.cit., loc.cit.
- ^ Campello, J.P. and A.J. Marsaioli. 1974. Triterpenes of Schinusterebinthifolius. Phytochem. 13: 659-660
- ^ Lampe, K.F. and M.A. McCann. 1985. AMA Handbook of Poisonous and Injurious Plants.American Medical Association, Chicago.
- ^ Lampe, K.F. and R. Fagerstrom. 1968. Plant Toxicityand Dermatitis. Williams & Wilkins Co.,Baltimore
- ^ Tomlinson, P.B. 1980. The Biology of Trees Native to Tropical Florida. Harvard University Printing Office, Allston.
- ^ Morton, J.F. 1978. Brazilian pepper - Its impact on people, animals and the environment. Econ. Bot.32: 353-359.
- ^ http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/botany/noxweed.html Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services
- ^ Florida Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council
- ^ Texas Invasives
- ^ Broadleaved pepper tree Schinus terebinthifolius Declared Class 3
- ^ Broad-leaf pepper tree
- ^ Swan Weeds — List of Weeds
- ^ "Invasive Alien Plants - CARA List". South African Nursery Association. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
- ^ "Tropical Plant Database".
Works cited[edit]
- Ewel, J. J. 1986. Invasibility: Lessons from south Florida. in H. A. Mooney and J. A. Drake, eds. Ecology of biological invasions of North America and Hawaii, pp. 214–230. Springer-Verlag, New York.
- Gogue, G. J., Hurst, C. J., & Bancroft, L. 1974. Growth inhibition by Schinus terebinthifolius. HortScience 9 (3): 301.
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Source | http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schinus_terebinthifolius&oldid=645104760 |
Habit: Medium Sized Tree
Seedling establishment: According to Ewel [55], Brazilian pepper seedlings are likely to survive once they reach about 4 to 6 inches (10-15 cm) tall and have well developed root systems. Factors likely to influence seedling establishment and survival include light levels, moisture availability, salinity, and plant community.
Brazilian pepper seedlings survive and grow in a wide range of light levels, but grow faster in full sunlight. In southern Florida, Brazilian pepper seedling survival over 22 months was >25% in dense habitats, and nearly 100% in open habitats. Brazilian pepper seedlings are capable of increased growth when light levels increase. In Everglades National Park, Brazilian pepper seedlings in canopy gaps were over twice the height of seedlings under the canopy after 2 years [56]. Two-week-old Brazilian pepper seedlings grew better at higher light levels; total dry weight of seedlings in the 300 µE/m²/sec treatment was over 3.0 grams after 6 weeks, and was less than 1.0 gram in the 60µE/m²/sec treatment [143]. In another greenhouse experiment, Brazilian pepper seedling relative growth rate, carbon dioxide assimilation, and light-saturated photosynthetic rates were significantly (P≤0.05) higher in 100% full sunlight than in 5% full sunlight, although Brazilian pepper survived and grew in 5% full sunlight. Relative growth of Brazilian pepper seedlings in both full sunlight and partial shade (31% full sunlight) was typically about twice that of native Hawaiian species in the same treatment group [149]. In a greenhouse experiment within the native range of Brazilian pepper, relative growth rate of Brazilian pepper seedlings increased from about 10 mg/g/day at 5% sunlight to just over 30 mg/g/day at 25% sunlight. Brazilian pepper also exhibited higher net photosynthetic rates under 25% sunlight than in more shaded conditions. However, it was considered stressed at all light levels tested (≤25%) [57].
Brazilian pepper seedlings grow on sites with varying water availability, from areas that are rarely inundated to those that are flooded for several weeks at a time [56]. Brazilian pepper seedlings (~1 year old) in treatments that were flooded to under 1 inch (1-2 cm) above soil level for 56 days exhibited 100% survival. After 20 days a 36% reduction in stomatal conductance and a 29% reduction in net photosynthesis were observed in flooded seedlings compared to control seedlings. In addition, flooded seedlings had significantly (P<0.01) smaller root biomass [135]. Brazilian pepper seedlings are more drought tolerant than Peruvian pepper (Schinus molle) seedlings [143]. In Florida, Brazilian pepper seedlings are susceptible to mortality during summer flooding and during the dry period, which ends in June. On wet sites, survival of outplanted seedlings ranged from 30% to 50%. Some of the seedlings that died were completely submerged during this period. Rapid changes in water levels may also cause seedling mortality [56].
Brazilian pepper seedlings require low salinity for survival in the field. Seedlings 3 to 4 inches (8-10 cm) tall were planted in 3 vegetation types: mangrove, herbaceous, and the transition between these types. All seedlings on sites with salinities of more than 5% died. The greatest survival over 9 months (89%) occurred on a disturbed ecotone plot where salinity ranged from 2% to 5% [141]. However, in a greenhouse experiment all Brazilian pepper seedlings exposed to salinities up to 15% survived. Growth, resource allocation, and gas exchange parameters were not significantly (P≤0.05) affected by slowly increasing salinity to 8% or 15% and then maintaining these levels for 1 month [52].
Investigations of Brazilian pepper invasiveness suggest that young successional vegetation (less than 8 years old) on sites that were previously farmed provides optimum habitat for seedling survival and growth. Brazilian pepper seedlings from seeds experimentally planted in young successional vegetation had the highest survival rates (<5%) over a period of about 9 months compared to those in undisturbed or generally older successional communities. For example, no Brazilian pepper that germinated from experimentally planted seeds survived in undisturbed hammock vegetation, and survival was less than 1% in other undisturbed communities and some older Brazilian pepper stands. Across habitat types, seedlings that were transplanted when 4 to 12 inches (10-30 cm) tall had higher survival rates (≥50% on 8 of 10 sites) than those of experimentally planted seeds. Survival rates were generally higher in young successional vegetation than mature communities. For instance, survival of Brazilian pepper seedlings was about 50% or less in mature pineland and hammock communities [56].
Velocidade de desenvolvimento: Moderada, Rápida
- CONCESSIONÁRIA DO SERVIÇO PÚBLICO DE DISTRIBUIÇÃO DE ENERGIA ELÉTRICA NO ESTADO DA BAHIA - COELBA. Guia de arborização urbana. Salvador: Unidade de Meio Ambiente, 2002. 55 p.
- CARVALHO, P. E. R. Espécies arbóreas brasileiras. 1. ed. Brasília: Embrapa Informação Tecnológica, 2003. v. 1, 1039 p.
- DURIGAN, G.; FIGLIOLIA, M. B.; KAWABATA, M.; GARRIDO, M. A. de O.; BAITELLO, J. B. Sementes e mudas de árvores tropicais. São Paulo: Páginas & Letras Editora e Gráfica, 1997. 65 p.
- LORENZI, H. Árvores brasileiras: manual de identificação e cultivo de plantas arbóreas nativas do Brasil. Nova Odessa: Editora Plantarum, 1998. v.1, 360 p.
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Source | http://flora.ipe.org.br/sp/137/ |
A native of Brazil. Occasionally cultivated in gardens of the Punjab and Sind.
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Rights holder/Author | eFloras.org Copyright © Missouri Botanical Garden |
Source | http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=250001098 |
Small to medium-sized tree, to 8 m. Branches not pendulous. Leaves pinnate; leaflets 5-13, oblong, acuminate. Fruit red, turning purple.
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Rights holder/Author | Mark Hyde, Bart Wursten, Petra Ballings, Flora of Zimbabwe |
Source | http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/cult/species.php?species_id=163810 |
Comments: Schinus is a pioneer of disturbed sites, such as highway rights-of- way, fallow fields, and drained bald cypress stands, but is also successful in undisturbed natural environments (Woodall 1982). Native plant communities that it colonizes successfully include pinelands occupying non-urbanized remnants of the Miami rock ridge. It also invades hammocks and forms extensive stands in the mangrove forests of Everglades National Park (Ewel et al. 1982).
More info for the terms: association, mesic, peat
Brazilian pepper germination generally peaks within several weeks of sowing. Field studies in southern Florida indicate that germination of Brazilian pepper seeds begins to decline 30 days after planting on most sites [148]. In laboratory studies most Brazilian pepper germination takes place within 30 days [56,141,142,148], and no germination occurred after about 55 days in a greenhouse experiment [56]. Seeds buried in commercial potting mix and grown outdoors in southeast Queensland began emerging 8 weeks after sowing [148].
Seed treatments: Treatments including exposure to heat, scarification or exocarp removal, and burial affect Brazilian pepper seed germination. In a laboratory study, Brazilian pepper seeds heated to 158 °F (70 °C) for 1 hour did not germinate [142]. It is unclear how heat from fire may affect Brazilian pepper germination and viability.
The Brazilian pepper exocarp inhibits germination. Several researchers found increased germination rates following exocarp removal [123,141,148,183]. Less than 5% emergence resulted from planting whole Brazilian pepper fruits, while extracted seeds sown on the soil surface had a mean total emergence of 39.2% and those buried to 0.3 inch (1 cm) depth had 17.7% emergence [148]. In a laboratory experiment, Brazilian pepper fruit attached to the peduncle did not germinate, while 22% of fruits without the peduncle germinated in 30 days. These germination rates were significantly (P<0.001) lower than those of Brazilian pepper fruits with the peduncle and exocarp removed (68% germination in 14 days). Brazilian pepper fruits with their exocarps and mesocarps removed exhibited even greater germination (100% germination in 18 days, P<0.001) [183]. Brazilian pepper seeds scarified with a metal sieve under running water had significantly (P<0.05) higher germination rates than unscarified seeds [141]. Acid scarification may also increase Brazilian pepper germination, although laboratory results do not report consistent increases (e.g., [56,142]). Seed source [56] and planting conditions [142] may affect germination rates of acid-scarified seeds.
Digestion of Brazilian pepper seed may increase germination compared to manually extracted seeds. Brazilian pepper seeds digested by red-whiskered bulbuls had significantly (P<0.001) higher germination rates (97%-100%) than seeds that were manually extracted from fruits (68%) [123] or seeds that had their exocarps, but not their mesocarps, manually removed (68%) [183]. In contrast, germination of seeds digested by silvereyes in southeastern Queensland did not differ significantly from germination of seeds with exocarps removed manually [148].
Site conditions: Many site conditions influence germination of Brazilian pepper including disturbance, soil type, soil salinity, moisture, and associated species.
Disturbance and/or successional stage may influence Brazilian pepper germination in the field. In an ecotone association in southern Florida, Brazilian pepper germination was 50% in plots where vegetation was removed and 13% in undisturbed plots after 4 months [141]. In Everglades National Park, Brazilian pepper germinated in all the habitat types investigated, though there was substantial variation within and between sites. Percent germination in the field varied from <1% to >30%, with early successional sites having generally higher germination rates. In mature communities, Brazilian pepper germination and subsequent survival was highest in pineland and lowest in hammock vegetation [56]. While Brazilian pepper seed germination was reduced by about 10% when exposed to Brazilian pepper exocarp extracts in the laboratory [142], inhibition was not evident in the field as over 100 Brazilian pepper seedlings emerged/m²/15 days in associations dominated by Brazilian pepper [56].
Soil type may influence Brazilian pepper seed germination. For instance, Brazilian pepper germination was significantly (P=0.0002) higher on marl soil (36%) than on peat (13%), both collected from Everglades National Park [141]. However, germination rates of acid-treated Brazilian pepper seeds sown in greenhouse soil mix (10%) and those sown in soil collected from bare ground in a southern Californian chaparral community (7%) were similar [142].
Germination and viability of Brazilian pepper seeds decline with increasing salinity in both field and laboratory experiments. Scarified fruits sown on filter paper exhibited decreasing germination with increasing salinity (P=0.0001). Germination of Brazilian pepper seeds in 0% saline solution was 80%. Germination rate declined linearly with increasing salinity, and Brazilian pepper seeds in the 20% saline solution exhibited 12% germination. Brazilian pepper seeds sown in marl and peat soils from Everglades National Park did not germinate when watered with 5%, 10%, or 15% saline solution in the laboratory. Similarly, germination in the field occurred only in ecotone vegetation where salinities were from 2% to 5% [141].
Mesic conditions are likely to increase Brazilian pepper seed germination. In a laboratory experiment, Brazilian pepper germination was 37% when the soil was always moist but never saturated. This was significantly (P=0.0002) higher than the 20% germination rate observed when the soil was moist at time of watering but dry within 24 hours, or the 16% germination rate observed when water was maintained at the top of the soil surface [141]. In the field, heavy, dry-season, rainfall increased germination in drier areas but decreased germination in wetter, low-lying areas [56].
Brazilian pepper
Brazilian peppertree
Christmas berry
Florida holly
aroeira