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Species
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch.
IUCN
NCBI
EOL Text
Nile region, oases, Mediterranean region, Egyptian desert, Res Sea coastal strip and Sinai (St.Katherine).
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More info for the terms: cover, xeric
Brazilian satintail occurs on rocky pineland sites in Florida [173]. In its native Peru, Brazilian satintail grows on montane savannas that average 80 inches (2,000 mm) annual precipitation. The dry season lasts from June to September. Temperatures average 73 °F (23 °C) and vary little between seasons. Soils are reddish-brown Latosols on dry upper slopes and reddish-yellow Podosols on moister, low slopes. Brazilian satintail grasslands generally have acidic soils with poor infiltration and drainage [128].
Cogon grass tolerates a wide range of site conditions across its worldwide range. It is drought tolerant, and somewhat shade and salt tolerant [70]. In its native lands of Asia and Africa, it grows on arid desert sands, river margins, and swamps [134]. Describing cogon grass in Indonesia, Terry and others [146] wrote "unlike most other plants ... I. cylindrica can tolerate drought, waterlogging, fire, cultivation and short-term shade ... at a single site." Imperata cylindrica var. major, the variety in North America, commonly occupies a wide variety of habitats in Asia including grasslands, deforested areas, old fields, cultivated fields, riparian areas, and disturbed sites such as roadsides. Other varieties have narrower habitat requirements and are less ubiquitous in their native ranges [37]. Hubbard [64] speculated that when Southeast Asian lands were still pristine, cogon grass may have been restricted to arid, relatively sterile, or heavy clay soils. In the United States, cogon grass is common on disturbed sites such as roadsides, mine spoils, pastures, agricultural lands, plantations, and early seral pine forests [43,90,173]. It also occurs on relatively undisturbed sites including wet and dry bottomland [137] and old-growth longleaf pine forests [155].
Soils: Cogon grass is sometime mistaken as an indicator of "degraded" lands with nutrient-poor soils. Although common on nutrient-poor soils (Ultisols and Oxisols) that native southeastern grasses cannot tolerate, it also occurs on soils of moderate to high fertility (Inceptisols and Andisols) [43,46,100]. Cogon grass tolerates a wide range of soil textures from coarse sands to heavy clays [43]. Soils in cogon grass's native Asia are often highly leached, with low pH, fertility, and organic matter [124]; however, cogon grass is not limited to nutrient-poor soils in Asia [100]. About 65% of cogon grass in Asia grows on strongly acidic soils (pH≤5.0) with a topsoil layer of 4 to 6 inches (10-15 cm) [19]. Nigerian researchers report cogon grass growing on slightly acid to neutral soils [130]. Best growth in North America occurs on moist, very strongly acid (pH 3.0-4.7) clay soils [43,64,124]; however, cogon grass often grows on clay soils of neutral pH in Florida [43,64]. On poor soils, cogon grass's ability to form monotypic stands in the southeastern United States is due in part to its ability to outcompete native herbs for space, light, water, and nutrients [12,26,38,48,86]. Cogon grass forms thick swards that cover thousands of hectares on abandoned phosphate mines dug in the heavy clay soils of Polk County, Florida [86].
Elevation: Worldwide, cogon grass is most common at elevations from sea level to 3,000 feet (1,000 m) elevation [19]. Elevational ranges for cogon grass in the United States were not reported as of this writing (2005).
Climate: Cogon grass is native to regions of wet-tropical and subtropical Asia and Africa where annual rainfall averages between 40 to 100 inches (1,000-2,500 mm) ([100] and references therein),[134]. Worldwide, cogon grass is most invasive in wet tropical and subtropical areas receiving 30 to 200 inches (750-5,000 mm) of annual rainfall [17]. It tolerates hot temperatures but is sensitive to cold [164,165]. It is limited to latitudes below 45° in both hemispheres ([17] and references therein). Rhizomes cannot recover when subject to temperatures of approximately 14 °F (-10 °C). Cogon grass survived winter temperatures that dropped to 7 °F (-14 °C) in Alabama [165], but did not survive winter temperatures of 18 °F (-8 °C) in Mississippi [64].
Moisture regime: Cogon grass tolerates both xeric and flooded soils, but cannot tolerate soils that are waterlogged for long periods of time [116]. Along the Nile River in Egypt, cogon grass is associated with high-moisture, high-salinity sites [129]. It grows up to the edges of standing water in Florida [70], but does not invade continually flooded sites [28]. In a greenhouse experiment, cogon grass germinants were intolerant of soil inundation and became increasingly tolerant of saturated soils as the plants matured. The authors concluded that soil inundation in early spring could limit cogon grass seedling establishment [74].
More info for the terms: cover, density, ramet, rhizome
Brazilian satintail regenerates from rhizomes and seed [64]. It is pollinated by wind [133]. To date (2005), English-based literature does not provide many details on Brazilian satintail reproduction; such studies are needed for best Brazilian satintail management. Since they are closely related, the information given below for cogon grass may also apply to Brazilian satintail.
Cogon grass reproduces from seed, rhizome expansion, and rhizome fragments [43,86]. Both seed and rhizome regeneration are important in its spread. Seed reproduction allows for long-distance dispersal and colonization, whereas rhizome spread is the primary means of population expansion [56,64]. Transported rhizome fragments also contribute to its long-distance dispersal and colonization [86].
Breeding system: Cogon grass is outcrossing [43,50,125,133]. Clonal populations show low or no fertility [94]. Imperata cylindrica var. major shows considerable diversity in reproductive morphology and physiology in Asia ([15] and references therein),[124,146]. Studies in central and northern Florida suggested a high degree of genetic variability among cogon grass populations. Populations with low genetic diversity tended to have low seed viability, while populations with high genetic diversity had high seed viability. It is not known whether low seed viability was due to inability to outcross, poor environmental conditions, or other factors. The authors concluded that successful outcrossing was low in most cogon grass populations, but higher rates of genetic diversity and fecundity could be expected as southeastern populations expand and outcross [133].
Pollination: Cogon grass is pollinated by wind [94,133].
Flower production: Cogon grass flower production is highly variable. Some researchers report cogon grass as highly productive [43], but flowering is often sporadic, ranging from none to frequent flowering within and among populations [34,43,106,170]. In a common garden study using Malaysian collections, some cogon grass populations frequently produced flowers; others never produced flowers (but spread vegetatively); while most produced flowers only after mowing disturbance [125]. Disturbances including nitrogen amendment, slashing, burning, defoliation, and grazing may trigger cogon grass flowering [43,63]. However, Shilling and others [133] found consistent flowering in 11 Florida cogon grass populations, none of which were disturbed. Field and greenhouse studies suggest that cogon grass flowering is not photoperiod-dependent [133].
Seed production and seed viability likewise vary widely among populations. A Florida study found that geographically isolated cogon grass populations did not produce seed, but plants within the population produced fertile seeds when cross-pollinated with pollen from another population [94]. Saijise [124] found a mean of 700 seeds/panicle on cogon grass plants in the Philippines. A spikelet count in Florida showed a mean of 363 ± 47.5 spikelets/panicle. Actual production was higher because some spikelets had shattered prior to data collection [133]. A Malaysian study found heavy flower production followed by low seed set [125]. Preliminary investigations in Florida found flowers growing under stressful conditions rarely produced seed, so cogon grass has sometimes been labeled as a poor seed producer [37,124]. However, later research showed cogon grass can produce seed prolifically, even after disturbance [94,133]. Fire, tillage, mowing, and cold stress may stimulate cogon grass flower and seed production [124].
Seed/rhizome dispersal: Cogon grass seed is spread by wind. The seeds are small and light weight, with long, hairy plumes aiding wind carriage [43,94,133,164]. Cogon grass seeds may drift 15 miles (20 km) in open country [64]. Shilling and others [133] showed that wind can disperse cogon grass spikelets up to 360 feet (110 m) from the parent plant. Cogon grass spread in Alabama from 1973 to 1985 was apparently due to northeasterly prevailing winds from the Gulf of Mexico blowing seeds up Interstate 65 [164,165].
Roads and road construction are important corridors for cogon grass dispersal [17,169]. Rhizomes are transported by machinery and fill dirt during construction [43,107]. Most long-distance dispersal of cogon grass is probably from inadvertent human transport of rhizomes and seeds [86]. Willard and others [169,170] speculated that cogon grass spread in Florida was mostly from transporting soil contaminated with cogon grass propagules.
Seed banking: Cogon grass seed is short lived, generally remaining viable in the soil for about 1 year [50]. Viability of seeds stored in a laboratory steadily decreased over 13 months [34]. Field studies in Asia show a maximum seed life of 16 months [124,125].
Germination: Cogon grass seeds are not dormant and do not require stratification. They germinate 1 to 4 weeks after ripening [8,34,124,125,133]. Shilling and others [133] found that with 11 Florida cogon grass populations, seeds began germinating within 7 days of harvest, with 94% germination by day 14. Seed viability is variable. Seed collected from 9 sites in central Florida showed high variability in germination rate between sites, with viability ranging from 0% to 100% [133]. An Alabama study found 80% to 95% seed viability [34]; another study found 0% germination in Mississippi and 20% in Florida in the same year [64]. Across years in a single population, an Alabama study found 4% germination in 1970 and 70% germination in 1972 [32].
In the laboratory, cogon grass seed collected in Alabama germinated at temperatures from 77 °F to 95 °F (25 °C-35 °C), with best germination at 86 °F (30 °C). Light increased germination time and rate [34]. A Philippine study also found high germination (>80%) in open areas [124]. Light and soil fertility interactions may affect germination. In Florida, seeds germinated with light did not show an increased germination rate when fertilized with potassium nitrate solution; however, seed germinated in the dark had highest germination rate with addition of potassium nitrate [34].
Seedling establishment: Seedlings establish best on open, disturbed areas [8]. In a greenhouse study conducted on seed bank samples collected over 2 years in Polk County, Florida, cogon grass seed emerged over a 3-month period. Seedling density averaged 1.9 ± 0.48 seedlings/m². There was no significant difference (P=0.78) in seedling emergence between collection years, but emergence differed significantly (P=0.001) with month of soil collection. Best emergence occurred in samples collected from April to June, particularly samples collected in May. Another emergence spike occurred in samples collected in December and January. Seedlings did not emerge from soil samples collected in other months [133]. Cogon grass seedlings tend to emerge in clumps, reflecting the tendency of spikelets to disperse in clumps [35]. Seedling mortality is generally high, with about 20% of emergents surviving to produce seed. Risk of mortality probably lessens when seedlings sprout rhizomes [133].
For established populations, asexual regeneration from rhizomes is cogon grass's primary method of expansion [7,43]. Kushwaha and others [82] reported that on old fields in India, cogon grass regenerated from mostly seed on recently burned, clipped, or abandoned plots, but regenerated only from rhizomes on 3- to 5-year-old fallows. On 2 study sites in Mississippi, cogon grass spread into longleaf pine savannas from infested roadsides. Spread was almost entirely from rhizomes. Rhizome spread slowed, but did not stop, as the populations expanded into interior savannas [165]. Eussen [37] reported that cogon grass can produce 350 rhizomes in 6 weeks, and cover 4 m² in 11 weeks.
Regenerative capacity of cogon grass rhizomes is linked to stem age, length, thickness, and number of large buds. Only old ("2nd generation" or rhizomes arising from rhizome buds) rhizomes can sprout and grow roots [43]. Rhizomes sprout readily after mowing, grazing, or burning removes top-growth [8]. A low root:rhizome ratio aids in rapid regrowth after fire or mowing [124]. In a growth chamber study, Ayeni and Duke [8] found old, large rhizome segments showed best stem sprouting and biomass gain compared to small, younger rhizome segments. Soerjani [136] found rhizome sprouting ability was not restricted by bud size, position on the node, internode length, or node diameter. In greenhouse and laboratory experiments, potted rhizomes buried deeper than 3 to 8 inches (8-20 cm) below the soil surface show poor sprouting ability [37,165].
Possibly because of low intrapopulation genetic diversity and inability to outcross, isolated cogon grass populations reproduce mostly or entirely by clonal expansion from rhizomes. Although rhizome growth is rapid, populations that reproduce mostly by cloning probably have lower overall rates of expansion compared to populations that reproduce from both seed and rhizomes. Overall rates of invasion probably increase when seed-reproducing cogon grass populations expand into and cross-pollinate with previously rhizome-expanding populations [86].
Growth: Ramet growth is considerably faster than seedling growth. In the greenhouse, Shilling and others [133] found plant height, leaf number, and biomass were significantly greater (P<0.001) in plants grown from broken rhizome fragments compared to seedlings. Rhizome fragments produced new secondary rhizomes within 4 weeks, while seedlings took 12 weeks to produce primary rhizomes. Cogon grass rhizomes can produce 350 shoots in 6 weeks and cover 4 m² in 11 weeks [37]. In the greenhouse, cogon grass seedlings produced primary rhizomes 4 weeks after emergence [125]. In Marion County, Florida, 3- to 4-month-old, wild seedlings were observed in the 5-leaf stage in October, and seedlings had formed roots and primary rhizomes. Secondary rhizomes were not yet present [133].
Growth may vary among cogon grass populations. In a greenhouse experiment, plants grown from rhizomes collected in Mississippi (2 populations of Philippine origin) were significantly smaller (P<0.05) than plants grown from Alabama rhizomes (2 populations of Japanese origin). In the growth chamber, ideal day/night temperatures and photoperiod across cogon grass populations were 84/73 °F (29/22 °C) and 16 hours, respectively [106].
Biomass of fully developed cogon grass stands is considerable. A New Guinea study found cogon grass's annual dry-matter production averaged 23 Mg/ha [58]. In a Java field study, Soerjani [136] determined that undisturbed cogon grasslands contained approximately 3 to 6 million shoots/ha, 7 to 18 tonnes of leaves/ha, and 3 to 11 tonnes of rhizomes/ha.
Ornamental
Se utiliza como planta ornamental; la variedad de I. cylindrica Rubra también conocida como Barón Rojo o Pasto de sangre japonés se utiliza en el diseño de paisaje.(ISC 2011).
Agropecuario
Imperata cylindrica se usa como paja, en la producción de forraje a corto plazo (GISD 2005).
Medicinal
Las flores y raíces de I. cylindrica tienen propiedades antibacteriales, diuréticas, emolientes, antipiréticas, astringentes, estimulantes y tónicas (GISD 2005).
Rehabilitación de suelos
I. cylindrica fue importada y distribuida por el Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos para controlar la erosión de suelo (GISD 2005).
Industrial
Se utiliza para la producción de papel (GISD, 2005).
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Imperata cylindrica, commonly known as blady grass, cogon grass /koʊˈɡoʊn/, kunai grass /ˈkuːnaɪ/, or Japanese bloodgrass, is a species of grass in the genus Imperata. It is placed in the subfamily Panicoideae, supertribe Andropogonodae, tribe Andropogoneae.
It is a perennial rhizomatous grass native to east and southeast Asia, India, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia, and eastern and southern Africa. It grows from 0.6–3 m (2–10 feet) tall. The leaves are about 2 cm wide near the base of the plant and narrow to a sharp point at the top; the margins are finely toothed and are embedded with sharp silica crystals. The main vein is a lighter colour than the rest of the leaf and tends to be nearer to one side of the leaf. The upper surface is hairy near the base of the plant while the underside is usually hairless. Roots are up to 1.2 meters deep, but 0.4 m is typical in sandy soil.
Contents
Cultivation and uses[edit]
It is used for thatching the roofs of traditional homes throughout south-east Asia.
It is planted extensively for ground cover and soil stabilization near beach areas and other areas subject to erosion. Other uses include paper-making, thatching and weaving into mats and bags. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine.[1]
A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use as ornamental plants, including the red-leaved 'Red Baron', also known as Japanese blood grass.
Young inflorescences and shoots may be eaten cooked, and the roots contain starch and sugars and are therefore easy to chew.[2][3]
Weed problems[edit]
The plant has become naturalized in the Americas, Northern Asia, Europe and Africa in addition to many islands and is listed as an invasive weed in some areas. In the U.S. it survives best in the Southeast (and, according to a 2003 survey, has overtaken more acreage in that region than the notorious kudzu),[4] but has been reported to exist as far north as West Virginia and Oregon. Worldwide it has been observed from 45°N to 45°S. It grows on wet lands, dry lands, areas of high salinity, organic soils, clay soils and sandy soils of pH from 4.0 to 7.5. It prefers full sun but will tolerate some shade. In Florida I. cylindrica is found in areas where the soil has been disturbed, such as roadsides, building sites, timber harvesting areas, and burrow pits. It is able to invade both moist and dry upland pine forests. Once established it often forms dense monocultures.[5]
It spreads both through small seeds, which are easily carried by the wind, and rhizomes which can be transported by tilling equipment and in soil transport.
In the Southeastern United States, state governments have various eradication efforts in place, and deliberate propagation is prohibited by some authorities.[6] Control is typically by the use of herbicides. Burnoff is seldom successful since the grass burns at a high temperature causing heat damage to trees which would ordinarily be undamaged by a controlled burn and recovers from a burn quickly.
The legume vine Mucuna pruriens is used in the countries of Benin and Vietnam as a biological control for Imperata cylindrica.[7]
Flammability[edit]
Anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that types of this grass are quite flammable even when apparently green,[8] particularly in Southeast Asian climates. It is not uncommon to see hillsides of cogon grass on fire.[9][10]
A common expression in the Philippines is ningas cogon ('cogon brush fire'). It is a figure of speech for procrastination, specifically people who show a fervent interest in a new project but lose interest quickly, in reference to the propensity of cogon grass to catch fire and burn out quickly.[11]
Phytochemistry[edit]
The plant contains the triterpenoids arundoin, cylindrin and fernenol.[12]
Taxonomy[edit]
Imperata cylindrica was first described by Linnaeus in 1759 under the basionym Lagurus cylindricus.[13] They were renamed by the French entomologist and botanist Palisot de Beauvois to the current accepted name of Imperata cylindrica.
Synonyms include:
Etymology[edit]
From Spanish cogón, from the Tagalog and Visayan kugon.[15]
Local names[edit]
Local English names:
- Australia: blady grass
- Nigeria: speargrass
- South Africa: silver spike
- USA: cogongrass, cogon grass, cogon, kunai grass, sword grass, Japanese bloodgrass
Names in other languages:
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References[edit]
- ^ "Imperata". Acupuncturetoday - traditional Chinese medicine (tcm). Retrieved 22 Dec 2014.
- ^ Imperata cylindrica - Plants For A Future database report
- ^ Imperata cylindrica
- ^ Aggressive weed becoming a menace worse than kudzu, UF researcher says
- ^ "Cogon Grass". Invasive Non-native Plants. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Retrieved 2013-11-25.
- ^ http://www.newsobserver.com/1565/story/1134380.html
- ^ "Factsheet - Mucuna pruriens". www.tropicalforages.info. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Species Description: Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.
- ^ 'Establishment of Stylo (Stylosanthes Guianensis) in Kunai (Imperata cylindrica) pastures and its Effect of Dry Matter Yield and Animal Production in the Markham Valley, Papua New Guinea by P.A. Chadhokar
- ^ Fire leaves 20 without shelter
- ^ Filipino Culture: What is Ningas Cogon
- ^ The structures of arundoin, cylindrin and fernenol : Triterpenoids of fernane and arborane groups of imperata cylindrica var. koenigii. K. Nishimoto, M. Ito and S. Natori, Tetrahedron, 1968, Volume 24, Issue 2, Pages 735–752, doi:10.1016/0040-4020(68)88023-8
- ^ Wunderlin, R. P., and B. F. Hansen. 2008. Imperata cylindrica. Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants (http://www.plantatlas.usf.edu/).[S. M. Landry and K. N. Campbell (application development), Florida Center for Community Design and Research.] Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florida, Tampa.
- ^ "Hippeastrum petiolatum". Missouri Botanical Garden, http://www.tropicos.org/. Retrieved February 3, 2011.
- ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary: Cogon
- ^ http://assamplants.com/All%20Species/Imperata.htm
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Throughout the tropics, extending to the Mediterranean region, also in south America.
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More info for the terms: fern, mesic, shrub
Brazilian satintail occupies pine (Pinus spp.) and oak (Quercus
spp.)-pine communities of the Southeast. Descriptions of southeastern plant
communities infested with Brazilian satintail were not found in the literature.
Studies to determine if and how Brazilian satintail affects composition and
diversity of such plant communities are needed.
Details of Brazilian satintail communities of South America are also limited. In Peru,
Brazilian satintail dominates montane savannas. Copperleaf
(Acalypha spp.), muttonwood (Rapanea spp.), speedwell (Veronica
spp.), and false-willow (Baccharis spp.) are dominant woody genera; bracken
fern (Pteridium
aquilinum) often codominates on Brazilian satintail grassland areas. Scott [128] lists associated
plant species on
Brazilian satintail-dominated savannas of eastern Peru.
Cogon grass occurs in southeastern pine and oak-pine communities that
experience frequent fire
(see Cogon grass in North America
for further details). It is most common in the ground layer of mesic longleaf
pine (Pinus palustris) savannas [14]. Oaks including blackjack
oak (Q. marilandica), turkey oak (Q. laevis), and southern red oak (Q.
falcata) are often frequent in the overstory. Common shrub associates of
cogon grass include persimmon (Diospyros
virginiana), black highbush blueberry (Vaccinium fuscatum), dwarf huckleberry (Gaylussacia dumosa), and
bitter gallberry (Ilex glabra).
Common groundlayer associates include big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii),
paintbrush (A. tenerius), Beyrich threeawn (Aristida beyrichiana),
golden colicroot (Aletris aurea), and roundleaf thoroughroot (Eupatorium rotundifolium)
[109]. Cogon grass occurs in south Florida slash pine/firegrass (Pinus
elliottii var. densa/Andropogon cabanisii) savannas of Everglades
National Park. Brazilian peppertree (Schinus
terebinthifolius) and silkreed (Neyraudia reynaudiana) are other
nonnative invasive associates inventoried on Everglades savannas. Cogon grass
dominates some grassland sites in the Everglades [113].
In Puerto Rico, cogon grass occurs in early seral bracatinga (Mimosa
scabrella) forests. Leandra (Leandra australis) and cappel (Palicourea spp.)
also occur in the overstory. Groundlayer associates include hemlock-rosette
grass (Dichanthelium sabulorum) and flatsedge (Cyperus hermaphroditus) [54].
In Southeast Asia, cogon grass dominates extensive grassland areas. It also
dominates the ground layers of Khasia pine (Pinus kesiya), Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii),
and other pine forests that experience frequent surface fires [37,97].
Sticky snakeroot (Eupatorium adenophorum), which is native to Southeast Asia, is commonly associated with
cogon grass in both the Old and New Worlds [97]. Jack-in-the-bush (Eupatorium odoratum)
and broadleaf carpet grass (Axonopus compressus) are other common associates on Asian grasslands
subject to frequent fire that also co-occur with cogon grass in the southeastern
United States [80,82,103,144,172]. Cogon grasslands in Asia can become increasingly diverse with time
since last fire [37]. Eussen [37] and Tanimoto [144] provide further
descriptions of cogon grassland associations of Southeast Asia.
More info on this topic.
More info for the term: geophyte
RAUNKIAER [119] LIFE FORM:
Both species are geophytes.
Cogon grass can invade and overtake disturbed ecosystems, forming a dense mat of thatch and leaves that makes it nearly impossible for other plants to coexist. Large infestations of cogon grass can alter the normal fire regime of a fire-driven ecosystem by causing more frequent and intense fires that injure or destroy native plants. Cogon grass displaces a large variety of native plant species used by native animals (e.g., insects, mammals, and birds) as forage, host plants and shelter. Some ground-nesting species have also been known to be displaced due to the dense cover that cogon grass creates.
SW Sichuan [N India].
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