Species
Mammalia
IUCN
NCBI
EOL Text
The Class Mammalia includes about 5000 species placed in 26 orders. Systematists do not yet agree on the exact number or on how some orders and families are related to others. The Animal Diversity Web generally follows the arrangement used by Wilson and Reeder (2005). Exciting new information, however, coming from phylogenies based on molecular evidence and from new fossils, is changing our understanding of many groups. For example, skunks have been placed in the new family Mephitidae, separate from their traditional place within the Mustelidae (Dragoo and Honeycutt 1997, Flynn et al., 2005). The Animal Diversity Web follows this revised classification. Whales almost certainly arose from within the Artiodactyla (Matthee et al. 2001; Gingerich et al. 2001). The traditional subdivision of the Chiroptera into megabats and microbats may not accurately reflect evolutionary history (Teeling et al. 2002). Even more fundamentally, molecular evidence suggests that monotremes (Prototheria, egg-laying mammals) and marsupials (Metatheria) may be more closely related to each other than to placental mammals (Eutheria) (Janke et al. 1997), and placental mammals may be organized into larger groups (Afrotheria, Laurasiatheria, Boreoeutheria, etc.) that are quite different from traditional ones (Murphy et al. 2001).
All mammals share at least three characteristics not found in other animals: 3 middle ear bones, hair, and the production of milk by modified sweat glands called mammary glands. The three middle ear bones, the malleus, incus, and stapes (more commonly referred to as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) function in the transmission of vibrations from the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the inner ear. The malleus and incus are derived from bones present in the lower jaw of mammalian ancestors. Mammalian hair is present in all mammals at some point in their development. Hair has several functions, including insulation, color patterning, and aiding in the sense of touch. All female mammals produce milk from their mammary glands in order to nourish newborn offspring. Thus, female mammals invest a great deal of energy caring for each of their offspring, a situation which has important ramifications in many aspects of mammalian evolution, ecology, and behavior.
Although mammals share several features in common (see Physical Description and Systematics and Taxonomic History), Mammalia contains a vast diversity of forms. The smallest mammals are found among the shrews and bats, and can weigh as little as 3 grams. The largest mammal, and indeed the largest animal to ever inhabit the planet, is the blue whale, which can weigh 160 metric tons (160,000 kg). Thus, there is a 53 million-fold difference in mass between the largest and smallest mammals! Mammals have evolved to exploit a large variety of ecological niches and life history strategies and, in concert, have evolved numerous adaptations to take advantage of different lifestyles. For example, mammals that fly, glide, swim, run, burrow, or jump have evolved morphologies that allow them to locomote efficiently; mammals have evolved a wide variety of forms to perform a wide variety of functions.
- Nowak, R. 1991. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Vaughan, T., J. Ryan, N. Czaplewski. 2000. Mammalogy, 4th Edition. Toronto: Brooks Cole.
- Gingerich, P., M. ul Haq, I. Zalmout, I. Khan, M. Malkani. 2001. Origin of whales from early artiodactyls: Hands and feet of Eocene Protocetidae from Pakistan. Science, 293: 2239-2242.
- Dragoo, J., R. Honeycutt. 1997. Systematics of mustelid-like carnivores. Journal of Mammalogy, 78: 426-443.
- Janke, A., X. Xu, U. Arnason. 1997. The complete mitochondrial genome of the wallaroo (Macropus robustus) and the phylogenetic relationship among Monotremata, marsupialia, and Eutheria. Proc. National Academy of Sciences, 94: 1276-1281.
- Matthee, C., J. Burzlaff, J. Taylor, S. Davis. 2001. Mining the mammalian genome for artiodactyl systematics. Systematic Biology, 50: 367-390.
- Murphy, W., E. Eizirik, S. O'Brien, O. Madsen, M. Scally, C. Douady, E. Teeling, O. Ryder, M. Stanhope, W. de Jong, M. Springer. 2001. Resolution of the early placental mammal radiation using Bayesian phylogenetics. Science, 294: 2348-2351.
- Teeling, E., O. Madsen, R. Van Den Bussche, W. de Jong, M. Stanhope, M. Springer. 2002. Microbat paraphyly and the convergent evolution of a key innovation in Old World rhinolophoid microbats. Proc. National Academy of Sciences, 99: 1431-1436.
- Wilson, D., D. Reeder. 1993. Mammal Species of the World. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Flynn, J., J. Finarelli, S. Zehr, J. Hsu, M. Nedbal. 2005. Molecular phylogeny of the Carnivora (Mammalia): assessing the impact of increased sampling on resolving enigmatic relationships. Systematic Biology, 54/2: 317-337.
- Klima, M., W. Maier. 1990. Body Structure. Pp. 58-84 in B Grzimek, ed. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals, Vol. 1, 1 Edition. New York: Mcgraw-Hill.
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Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2013, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Mammalia/ |
Predation is a significant source of mortality for many mammals. Except for those few species that are top predators, mammals are preyed upon by many other organisms, including other mammals. Other groups that typically eat mammals are predatory birds and reptiles. Many species cope with predation through avoidance strategies such as cryptic coloration, by restricting foraging to times when predators may not be abundant, or through their sociality. Some mammals also have defensive chemicals (e.g., skunks) or bear some type of protective armor or physical defense (e.g., armadillos, pangolins, New World porcupines and Old World porcupines).
Known Predators:
- Aves
- Reptilia
- Mammalia
Anti-predator Adaptations: aposematic ; cryptic
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Rights holder/Author | ©1995-2013, The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors |
Source | http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Mammalia/ |
Filaments adopt geometric symmetry: mammals
The formation and dynamics of the keratin intermediate filaments in mammalian stratum corneum may be the result of membrane templating.
"Keratin is tough, adaptable, flexible, resistant to water, and provides a good protective covering for the rest of the body. These qualities also make it an ideal material for the moulding of claws, nails and hooves…" (Foy and Oxford Scientific Films 1982)
"A new model for stratum corneum keratin structure, function, and formation is presented. The structural and functional part of the model, which hereafter is referred to as 'the cubic rod-packing model', postulates that stratum corneum keratin intermediate filaments are arranged according to a cubic-like rod-packing symmetry with or without the presence of an intracellular lipid membrane with cubic-like symmetry enveloping each individual filament. The new model could account for (i) the cryo-electron density pattern of the native corneocyte keratin matrix, (ii) the X-ray diffraction patterns, (iii) the swelling behavior, and (iv) the mechanical properties of mammalian stratum corneum. The morphogenetic part of the model, which hereafter is referred to as 'the membrane templating model', postulates the presence in cellular space of a highly dynamic small lattice parameter (<30 nm) membrane structure with cubic-like symmetry, to which keratin is associated. It further proposes that membrane templating, rather than spontaneous self-assembly, is responsible for keratin intermediate filament formation and dynamics. The new model could account for (i) the cryo-electron density patterns of the native keratinocyte cytoplasmic space, (ii) the characteristic features of the keratin network formation process, (iii) the dynamic properties of keratin intermediate filaments, (iv) the close lipid association of keratin, (v) the insolubility in non-denaturating buffers and pronounced polymorphism of keratin assembled in vitro, and (vi) the measured reduction in cell volume and hydration level between the stratum granulosum and stratum corneum. Further, using cryo-transmission electron microscopy on native, fully hydrated, vitreous epidermis we show that the subfilametous [sic] keratin electron density pattern consists, both in corneocytes and in viable keratinocytes, of one axial subfilament surrounded by an undetermined number of peripheral subfilaments forming filaments with a diameter of ~8 nm." (Norlén and Al-Amoudi 2004:715)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Norlen, L.; Al-Amoudi, A. 2004. Stratum Corneum Keratin Structure, Function, and Formation: The Cubic Rod-Packing and Membrane Templating Model. Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 123(4): 715-732.
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Specialized teeth wear down but remain effective: grazing animals
The teeth of grazing mammals wear down but not smooth because of a side-by-side layered arrangement of enamel, dentine, and cementum.
"Grazing has perhaps elicited the most dramatic dental specializations in mammals. About twenty million years ago, grasses and grasslands appeared on earth. Grass (and, incidentally, wood) provides poor fodder. It yields little energy relative to its mass, so a grazer has to process huge volumes. Much of that energy comes as chemically inert cellulose, which mammals hydrolyze only by enlisting symbiotic microorganisms in rumen or intestine. It's full of abrasive stuff like silicon dioxide and has lengthwise fibers that demand cross-wise chewing rather than rapid tearing. Long-lived grazers, concomitantly, have especially special teeth, with their components typically layered side by side, as in figure 16.5b. This odd-looking arrangement ensures that, while teeth may wear down…they won't wear smooth. The harder material (enamel, most particularly) will continue to protrude as the softer materials (cementum and dentine) wear down between them." (Vogel 2003:333)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Steven Vogel. 2003. Comparative Biomechanics: Life's Physical World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 580 p.
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Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
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Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius ater may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius borealis feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius brevis may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius coenosus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius conspurcatus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius consputus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius constans may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius contaminatus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius depressus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Other: sole host/prey
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius distinctus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius equestris feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius erraticus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius fasciatus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius fimetarius may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius foetens may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius foetidus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius fossor feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius granarius feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius haemorrhoidalis feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius ictericus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius lapponum feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius lividus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius merdarius may be found in fresh or older dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius nemoralis may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius paykulli may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius porcus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius prodromus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius pusillus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius rufipes may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius rufus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius scrofa feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Aphodius sordidus feeds on dung/debris dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius sphacelatus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
larva of Aphodius subterraneus feeds on dead Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Aphodius zenkeri may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
Aspergillus flavus infects Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
Aspergillus fumigatus infects Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
Aspergillus niger infects Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Bellardia feeds on dung/debris decaying matter of Mammalia
Animal / dung saprobe
fruitbody of Calocybe constricta is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of urine of Mammalia
In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / blood sucker
adult of Cimex lectularius sucks the blood of Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
cells of Cryptococcus (bot.) infects Mammalia
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / sweat sucker
imago (female) of Drymeia vicana sucks the sweat of Mammalia
Animal / rests in
Entamoeba muris rests inside large intestine of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Eristalis feeds on dung/debris wet manure of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Euheptaulacus sus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Euheptaulacus villosus may be found in dung of Mammalia
Animal / associate
larva of Fannia canicularis is associated with nest of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
larva of Fannia scalaris feeds on dead rotting meat of Mammalia
Animal / pathogen
Cryptococcus yeast anamorph of Filobasidiella neoformans infects Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes mutator feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes pyrenaeus feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Other: sole host/prey
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes spiniger feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes stercorarius feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Geotrupes stercorosus feeds on dung/debris buried dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung saprobe
fruitbody of Hebeloma radicosum is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of nest of Mammalia
Animal / dung saprobe
sporangiophore of Helicostylum piriforme is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of dung of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Helophilus pendulus feeds on dung/debris wet manure of Mammalia
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Heptaulacus testudinarius may be found in dry dung of Mammalia
Animal / associate
larva of Hydrotaea capensis is associated with cadaver of Mammalia
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / sweat sucker
imago (female) of Hydrotaea irritans sucks the sweat of Mammalia
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite
larva of Lucilia sericata ectoparasitises wound of Mammalia
Other: minor host/prey
Animal / dung associate
larva of Musca domestica inhabits dung of Mammalia
Animal / associate
larva of Neoascia is associated with wet manure of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Neoascia podagrica feeds on dung/debris wet manure of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
larva of Onthophagus coenobita feeds on dead buried corpse of Mammalia
Animal / dung saprobe
ascoma of Onygena corvina is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of hair of Mammalia
Other: major host/prey
Plant / resting place / within
imago of Oxyomus sylvestris may be found in dung in fields of Mammalia
Other: minor host/prey
Animal / dung associate
larva of Sarcophaga incisilobata inhabits dung of Mammalia
Animal / parasite
larva of Sarcophaga melanura parasitises Mammalia
Other: minor host/prey
Plant / resting place / on
larva of Sarcophila latifrons may be found on carrion of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
fruitbody of Schizophyllum commune feeds on dead dead horn of Mammalia
Other: unusual host/prey
Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / blood sucker
imago of Stomoxys calcitrans sucks the blood of Mammalia
Other: sole host/prey
Animal / dung saprobe
gregarious, semi-immersed perithecium of Subbaromyces splendens is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of Mammalia
Animal / dung/debris feeder
larva of Syritta pipiens feeds on dung/debris wet manure of Mammalia
Animal / carrion / dead animal feeder
Trox sabulosus feeds on dead dead horn of Mammalia
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Rights holder/Author | BioImages, BioImages - the Virtual Fieldguide (UK) |
Source | http://www.bioimages.org.uk/html/Mammalia.htm |
Muscles produce energy and heat: mammals
Muscles are contractile tissues that produce force and cause motion through a process involving electrical impulses and metabolization of glucose, producing ATP and lactic acid.
"The muscle consumes oxygen and fuel that can be transported via a circulation system; the muscle itself supports the chemical reaction that leads to mechanical work; electrochemical circuits can act as nerves, controlling actuation; some energy is stored locally in the muscle itself; and, like natural muscle, the materials studied…contract linearly." (Madden 2006:1559)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Madden, J. D. 2006. Artificial muscle begins to breathe. Science. 311(5767): 1559-1560.
- Ebron VH; Yang Z; Seyer DJ; Kozlov ME; Oh J; Xie H; Razal J; Hall LJ; Ferraris JP; MacDiarmid AG; Baughman, RH. 2006. Fuel-powered artificial muscles. Science. 311(5767): 1580-1583.
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Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
Source | http://www.asknature.org/strategy/4d6ec6aa74b7b2b4948ca715cb5302bc |
Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) Stats
Specimen Records:84058
Specimens with Sequences:90115
Specimens with Barcodes:67880
Species:3207
Species With Barcodes:2882
Public Records:61841
Public Species:2107
Public BINs:3224
Mammalia is prey of:
Aquila chrysaetos
Buteo regalis
Buteo swainsoni
Camponotus
Noctuidae
Pyralidae
Blattaria
Vespidae
Silphidae
Dermestes carnivorus
Scarabaeidae
Drosophilidae
Prochyliza azteca
Trigona
Phaenicia eximia
Hemilucilia segmentaria
Cochliomyia macellaria
Serpentes
Aves
Thamnophis sirtalis
Lampropeltis triangulum
Butorides virescens
Anas fulvigula
Buteo lineatus
Pandion haliaetus
Falco biarmicus
Herpetotheres cachinnans
Grus japonensis
Larus californicus
Larus canus
Tyto alba
Otus asio
Otus trichopsis
Surnia ulula
Micrathene whitneyi
Strix varia
Asio flammeus
Corvus corax
Corvus caurinus
Spermophilus lateralis
Sciurus niger
Sciurus carolinensis
Onychomys arenicola
Ursus maritimus
Ursus arctos
Lontra canadensis
Mustela vison
Bassariscus astutus
Nasua nasua
Panthera onca
Canis rufus
Panthera pardus
Cerdocyon thous
Lycaon pictus
Otocyon megalotis
Alligator mississippiensis
Paleosuchus trigonatus
Puma concolor
Didelphis marsupialis
Antechinus swainsonii
Dasycercus cristicauda
Dasyurus maculatus
Oncifelis geoffroyi
Oncifelis colocolo
Prionailurus viverrinus
Ardea alba
Asturina nitida
Ictinia mississippiensis
Otus kennicottii
Ciccaba nigrolineata
Pulsatrix perspicillata
Galago alleni
Cebus olivaceus
Papio hamadryas
Hylobates klossii
Eliomys quercinus
Hydromys chrysogaster
Heloderma horridum
Ailuropoda melanoleuca
Helarctos malayanus
Tremarctos ornatus
Pseudalopex griseus
Pseudalopex gymnocercus
Pseudalopex vetulus
Vulpes cana
Vulpes chama
Leopardus tigrinus
Lynx pardinus
Oreailurus jacobita
Prionailurus planiceps
Galidia elegans
Mungotictis decemlineata
Bdeogale nigripes
Herpestes edwardsii
Herpestes ichneumon
Suricata suricatta
Crocuta crocuta
Lutrogale perspicillata
Arctonyx collaris
Melogale everetti
Melogale moschata
Melogale personata
Conepatus chinga
Conepatus semistriatus
Galictis cuja
Ictonyx striatus
Martes melampus
Martes zibellina
Mustela altaica
Mustela kathiah
Mustela putorius
Mustela sibirica
Bassaricyon gabbii
Prionodon pardicolor
Sus verrucosus
Tatera indica
Chaetophractus villosus
Crocidura leucodon
Cardioderma cor
Macroderma gigas
Megaderma lyra
Vampyrum spectrum
Prionailurus iriomotensis
Canis lupus dingo
Canis lupus familiaris
Papio anubis
Papio cynocephalus
Papio papio
Papio ursinus
Based on studies in:
USA: California, Cabrillo Point (Grassland)
USA: California, Coachella Valley (Desert or dune)
Costa Rica (Carrion substrate)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- L. D. Harris and L. Paur, A quantitative food web analysis of a shortgrass community, Technical Report No. 154, Grassland Biome. U.S. International Biological Program (1972), from p. 17.
- L. F. Jiron and V. M. Cartin, 1981. Insect succession in the decomposition of a mammal in Costa Rica. J. New York Entomol. Soc. 89:158-165, from p. 163.
- Polis GA (1991) Complex desert food webs: an empirical critique of food web theory. Am Nat 138:123155
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
License | http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ |
Rights holder/Author | Cynthia Sims Parr, Joel Sachs, SPIRE |
Source | http://spire.umbc.edu/fwc/ |
Herbivores digest toxic plant compounds: mammals
Many herbivorous mammals are capable of safely ingesting various toxic plant compounds in part thanks to biotransformation enzymes.
"Many mammalian herbivores continually face the possibility of being poisoned by the natural toxins in the plants they consume. A recent key discovery in this area is that mammalian herbivores are capable of regulating the dose of plant secondary compounds (PSCs) ingested…
"The majority of wild mammalian herbivores confront food items which contain a myriad of chemical compounds that are potentially poisonous. Plant secondary compounds (PSCs) are arguably some of the most abundant and diverse naturally occurring toxins on earth. Although some herbivores behaviourally circumvent ingestion of marked quantities of PSCs either through food manipulation or avoidance (Dearing 1997), many herbivorous mammals regularly ingest foods with PSCs that if over-ingested could have serious consequences including death…Thus, herbivores have evolved physiological mechanisms for processing PSCs as well as behavioural feedback mechanisms to permit feeding on plants with toxins while avoiding ill effects…
"The specialist's constraint: Few mammalian herbivores have evolved the ability to forage nearly exclusively from a single species of plant (Freeland & Janzen 1974). Surprisingly, the plant species consumed by specialists tend to be low in nutrients and well-defended by PSCs (Shipley et al. 2006). Specialist herbivores are extraordinary because they are capable of taking in large doses of plant toxins with no obvious ill effects. The biotransformation enzymes permitting a diet rich in PSCs are just being discovered (Ngo et al. 2000; Ngo et al. 2006; Haley et al. 2007a,b). Not surprisingly many of these enzymes are in the diverse superfamily of the cytochrome P450 enzymes." (Torregrossa & Dearing 2009:48-9)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Torregrossa AM; Dearing MD. 2009. Nutritional toxicology of mammals: regulated intake of plant secondary compounds. Functional Ecology. 23(1): 48-56.
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Rights holder/Author | (c) 2008-2009 The Biomimicry Institute |
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